Ancient Chinese glass
Encyclopedia
Ancient Chinese glass refers to all types of glass
manufactured in China
prior to the Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911). In Chinese history, glass played a peripheral role in the arts and crafts, when compared to ceramics and metal work. The limited archaeological distribution and use of glass objects are evidence of the rarity of the material. Literary sources date the first manufacture of glass to the 5th century AD. However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China comes from the late Zhou Dynasty
(1046 BC to 221BC).
Chinese learned to manufacture glass comparably later than the Mesopotamians and Egyptians. Imported glass objects first reached China during the late Spring and Autumn period – early Warring States period
(early 5th century BC), in the form of polychrome ‘eye beads’. These imports created the impetus for the production of indigenous glass beads. During the Han period (206 BC to 220 AD) the use of glass diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects. The Chinese glass objects from the Warring States period and Han Dynasty
vary greatly in chemical composition from the imported glass objects. The glasses from this period contain high levels of barium oxide
(BaO) and lead
, distinguishing them from the soda-lime-silica glasses of Western Asia and Mesopotamia. At the end of the Han Dynasty (AD 220), the lead-barium glass tradition declined, with glass production only resuming during the 4th-5th centuries AD.
Table 1 shows examples of chemical compositions of some Chinese glass objects.
Table 1: Elemental compositions of Chinese glass from the Warring States Period to Han Dynasty. Data from the first 4 objects was taken from Brill et al. 1991; data from glass garment plaque was taken from Cheng Zhuhai and Zhou Changyuan 1991; and data from the ritual disk was taken from Shi Meiguang 1991.
The Chinese lead-barium glasses typically present 5 to 15% BaO. The source of barium in the glass in not clear; however it is possible that ancient Chinese glassmakers used witherite (a mineral form of barium carbonate
) as an ingredient. The use of a separate ingredient implies that barium had a specific function. This function could have been to flux the glass, by lowering the melting point of the melt; or stabilize the glass, by making it less soluble to water. It could also have been added to opacify the glass. Electron microprobe
analysis of glass fragments have shown that the turbidity
of certain lead-barium glasses is produced by barium disilicate crystals. This turbidity gives the glasses a jade-like appearance.
eye beads and monochrome
funerary objects
and China.
During the early 5th century BC, the imported eye beads were considered exotic objects. They were mainly deposited in high status burials, such as the tomb of a male aristocrat of the Qi state at Langjiazhuang, Shadong. This situation changes during the middle and late Warring States Period. Eye beads from this period are manufactured from Chinese lead-barium glass and are mainly found in the regions of the middle Yangzi River Valley, indicating a connection to the Chu kingdom. In this context, the beads became more common and available to a larger part of the Chinese society. Evidence of this is the presence of eye beads in medium and small burials, with modest funerary furnishings, as well as large, high-status burials.
The use of eye beads in burials rapidly declined at the beginning of the Western Han period. This is believed to be a result of the invasion of Chu kingdom territories by Qin and Han armies at the end of the 3rd century. The collapse of the Chu kingdom would have brought production of eye-beads to an end.
. In this period many glass objects, found in burial contexts, were made of opaque green, light green or milky white glass. These objects have similar shapes to their jade counterpart, and were no doubt imitating that precious stone. Among these objects there were bi disks, ‘glass garments’ (or glass suits), sword accessories and vessels, among others.
is a ritual object that resembles a flattened torus
. The earliest archeological specimens were carved from stone (usually nephrite
) and date back to the late Neolithic period; they became important burial elements during the 3rd millennium BCE. They were placed on or near the head of the deceased person.
Glass bi disks are the most numerous kind of monochrome glass objects. They first became abundant in the Chu kingdom during the Warring States period. Bi disks from this period tend to be between 7.9 and 9.4 cm in diameter. The glass bi disks look very similar to their stone contemporaries, usually decorated on one side with a simple grain or cloud pattern typical of jade objects. They are mainly found in medium to small-sized tombs, indicating the middle strata of society rather than the elite. This suggests that glass bi disks were regarded as cheaper alternatives to jade bi disks.
(128 BC), Jiangsu Province; and the tomb of Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan (113BC) at Mancheng
. The tomb at Xuzhou contained 16 light green cylindrical cups; while Prince Liu Sheng’s tomb contained 2 shallow double-handled cups and a plate. All of the vessels were traditional Chinese shapes and made of lead-barium glass. Vessels in these forms were normally made out of lacquer
or ceramic, although some jade vessels in those shapes are also known. All vessels were produced by mould casting.
Glass
Glass is an amorphous solid material. Glasses are typically brittle and optically transparent.The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in windows and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silica plus Na2O, CaO, and several minor additives...
manufactured in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
prior to the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(1644–1911). In Chinese history, glass played a peripheral role in the arts and crafts, when compared to ceramics and metal work. The limited archaeological distribution and use of glass objects are evidence of the rarity of the material. Literary sources date the first manufacture of glass to the 5th century AD. However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China comes from the late Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
(1046 BC to 221BC).
Chinese learned to manufacture glass comparably later than the Mesopotamians and Egyptians. Imported glass objects first reached China during the late Spring and Autumn period – early Warring States period
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
(early 5th century BC), in the form of polychrome ‘eye beads’. These imports created the impetus for the production of indigenous glass beads. During the Han period (206 BC to 220 AD) the use of glass diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects. The Chinese glass objects from the Warring States period and Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
vary greatly in chemical composition from the imported glass objects. The glasses from this period contain high levels of barium oxide
Barium oxide
Barium oxide, BaO, is a white hygroscopic compound formed by the burning of barium in oxygen, although it is often formed through the decomposition of other barium salts.It reacts with water to form barium hydroxide.-Uses:...
(BaO) and lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
, distinguishing them from the soda-lime-silica glasses of Western Asia and Mesopotamia. At the end of the Han Dynasty (AD 220), the lead-barium glass tradition declined, with glass production only resuming during the 4th-5th centuries AD.
Chemical composition of Warring States and Han period glasses
During the Warring States period and the Han Dynasty (5th century BC to early 3rd century AD) glass was imported from regions outside of East Asia, such as Mesopotamia. Imported western faience and glass probably inspired the production of the first Chinese glasses. The main group of objects with Western influences are eye beads or dragonfly-eyed beads. The key difference between Near Eastern eye beads and Chinese eye beads is their chemical composition. The coloured glasses used to produce the Chinese eye beads have a high lead and barium content. This type of composition was exclusive to China; and it was used to produce a range of glass objects until the end of the Han Dynasty.Table 1 shows examples of chemical compositions of some Chinese glass objects.
| Objects | Date | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CuO | CaO | MgO | K2O | Na2O | BaO | PbO |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eye bead | 4th to 3rd cen. BC | 55 | 2.13 | 0.62 | 0.31 | 2.95 | 1.27 | 4.05 | 7.53 | 9.74 | 15.0 |
| Large bead | Han Dynasty | 37.2 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.30 | 1.01 | 1.17 | 0.02 | 3.94 | 14.6 | 41.4 |
| Cube shaped bead | 4th to 1st cen. BC | 51 | 0.46 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.37 | 1.52 | 0.084 | 6.12 | 11.4 | 28.3 |
| Bi disk | 3rd cen. BC | 36.8 | 0.28 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.46 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 1.87 | 17.4 | 42.6 |
| 'Glass garment' plaque | Late Han Dyn | 36.03 | 0.02 | 0.07 | ---- | 0.22 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 2.27 | 21.49 | 40.37 |
| Ritual disk | Warring States | 37.16 | 0.62 | 0.16 | 0.03 | 1.95 | 0.40 | 0.27 | 3.32 | 13.4 | 39.8 |
Table 1: Elemental compositions of Chinese glass from the Warring States Period to Han Dynasty. Data from the first 4 objects was taken from Brill et al. 1991; data from glass garment plaque was taken from Cheng Zhuhai and Zhou Changyuan 1991; and data from the ritual disk was taken from Shi Meiguang 1991.
The Chinese lead-barium glasses typically present 5 to 15% BaO. The source of barium in the glass in not clear; however it is possible that ancient Chinese glassmakers used witherite (a mineral form of barium carbonate
Barium carbonate
Barium carbonate , also known as witherite, is a chemical compound used in rat poison, bricks, ceramic glazes and cement.Witherite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system...
) as an ingredient. The use of a separate ingredient implies that barium had a specific function. This function could have been to flux the glass, by lowering the melting point of the melt; or stabilize the glass, by making it less soluble to water. It could also have been added to opacify the glass. Electron microprobe
Electron microprobe
An electron microprobe , also known as an electron probe microanalyzer or electron micro probe analyzer , is an analytical tool used to non-destructively determine the chemical composition of small volumes of solid materials...
analysis of glass fragments have shown that the turbidity
Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality....
of certain lead-barium glasses is produced by barium disilicate crystals. This turbidity gives the glasses a jade-like appearance.
Glass objects in the Warring States and Han Periods
The period between the Warring States period and the Han Dynasty shaped the early Chinese glass industry. Most of the glass objects from this period come from archaeological excavations of tombs. Because of this, most glass objects have fairly secure dating and context. During this period Chinese mainly used glass to produce two distinct types of objects, polychromePolychrome
Polychrome is one of the terms used to describe the use of multiple colors in one entity. It has also been defined as "The practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors." Polychromatic light is composed of a number of different wavelengths...
eye beads and monochrome
Monochrome
Monochrome describes paintings, drawings, design, or photographs in one color or shades of one color. A monochromatic object or image has colors in shades of limited colors or hues. Images using only shades of grey are called grayscale or black-and-white...
funerary objects
Eye Beads
The earliest types of glass objects found in China are polychrome eye beads or dragonfly-eyed beads. The beads are found in burials from the late Spring and Autumn and early Warring States periods (early 5th century BC) up to late Warring State – early Western Han period. Most beads have a monochrome glass body covered by several layers of coloured glass. The layers of different colour glass are applied in alternating fashion to produce concentric circles. The patterns of circles resemble eyes, giving the beads their name. This style of bead originated in the Near East during the mid 2nd millennium BC. The stylistic influence later spread to the Mediterranean, Central AsiaCentral Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
and China.
During the early 5th century BC, the imported eye beads were considered exotic objects. They were mainly deposited in high status burials, such as the tomb of a male aristocrat of the Qi state at Langjiazhuang, Shadong. This situation changes during the middle and late Warring States Period. Eye beads from this period are manufactured from Chinese lead-barium glass and are mainly found in the regions of the middle Yangzi River Valley, indicating a connection to the Chu kingdom. In this context, the beads became more common and available to a larger part of the Chinese society. Evidence of this is the presence of eye beads in medium and small burials, with modest funerary furnishings, as well as large, high-status burials.
The use of eye beads in burials rapidly declined at the beginning of the Western Han period. This is believed to be a result of the invasion of Chu kingdom territories by Qin and Han armies at the end of the 3rd century. The collapse of the Chu kingdom would have brought production of eye-beads to an end.
Monocrome opaque objects
During the Warring States and Han periods, Chinese glassworkers took advantage of the similarities between glass and jadeJade
Jade is an ornamental stone.The term jade is applied to two different metamorphic rocks that are made up of different silicate minerals:...
. In this period many glass objects, found in burial contexts, were made of opaque green, light green or milky white glass. These objects have similar shapes to their jade counterpart, and were no doubt imitating that precious stone. Among these objects there were bi disks, ‘glass garments’ (or glass suits), sword accessories and vessels, among others.
Bi disks
A bi diskBi (jade)
The bi is a form of circular jade artifact from ancient China. The earliest bi were produced in the Neolithic period, particularly by the Liangzhu culture . Later examples date mainly from the Shang, Zhou and Han dynasties. They were also made in glass.-Description:A bi is a flat jade disc with a...
is a ritual object that resembles a flattened torus
Torus
In geometry, a torus is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three dimensional space about an axis coplanar with the circle...
. The earliest archeological specimens were carved from stone (usually nephrite
Nephrite
Nephrite is a variety of the calcium and magnesium-rich amphibole mineral actinolite . The chemical formula for nephrite is Ca25Si8O222. It is one of two different mineral species called jade. The other mineral species known as jade is jadeite, which is a variety of pyroxene...
) and date back to the late Neolithic period; they became important burial elements during the 3rd millennium BCE. They were placed on or near the head of the deceased person.
Glass bi disks are the most numerous kind of monochrome glass objects. They first became abundant in the Chu kingdom during the Warring States period. Bi disks from this period tend to be between 7.9 and 9.4 cm in diameter. The glass bi disks look very similar to their stone contemporaries, usually decorated on one side with a simple grain or cloud pattern typical of jade objects. They are mainly found in medium to small-sized tombs, indicating the middle strata of society rather than the elite. This suggests that glass bi disks were regarded as cheaper alternatives to jade bi disks.
Glass burial suit plaques
Plaques from glass burial suits or glass garments are directly linked to jade objects. Several pieces of burial suit plaques have been found in a few wooden-chambered burials from the late West Han Dynasty. The plaques come in different shapes, with rectangular being the most common. Some of these rectangular pieces have perforations in 4 corners, indicating that they were strung together, or sewn into a fabric, to form a protective burial suit. Other shapes, such as circular, triangular and rhomboidal, are often decorated with moulded patterns. All the glass plaque shapes have jade counterparts, suggesting that glass burial suits were a cheaper alternative to jade burial suits.Vessels
The earliest known Chinese glass vessels come from Western Han Dynasty tombs. To this date only two tombs are known to have had glass vessels among their funerary objects: the tomb of the Lui Dao, Prince of Chu in XuzhouXuzhou
Xuzhou , otherwise known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China...
(128 BC), Jiangsu Province; and the tomb of Liu Sheng, Prince Jing of Zhongshan (113BC) at Mancheng
Mancheng
Mancheng County or Man-ch'eng County is a county in Hebei province, China. It is administratively part of Baoding prefecture-level city, of which the Mancheng is a suburb...
. The tomb at Xuzhou contained 16 light green cylindrical cups; while Prince Liu Sheng’s tomb contained 2 shallow double-handled cups and a plate. All of the vessels were traditional Chinese shapes and made of lead-barium glass. Vessels in these forms were normally made out of lacquer
Lacquer
In a general sense, lacquer is a somewhat imprecise term for a clear or coloured varnish that dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well that produces a hard, durable finish, in any sheen level from ultra matte to high gloss and that can be further polished as required...
or ceramic, although some jade vessels in those shapes are also known. All vessels were produced by mould casting.
General references
- An Jiayao (1991) The early glass of China. In Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds) Scientific research in early Chinese glass. Proceeding of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp: 5-19
- n Jiayao (2002) Polycrome and monochrome glass of the Warring States and Han periods. In Braghin, C. (ed) Chinese Glass. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period (fifth century B.C. to twelfth century A.D.) pp 45–70
- Braghin, C. (2002a) Introduction. In Braghin, C. (ed) Chinese Glass. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period (fifth century B.C. to twelfth century A.D.) pp XI-XIV
- Braghin, C. (2002b) Polycrome and monochrome glass of the Warring States and Han periods. In Braghin, C. (ed) Chinese Glass. Archaeological studies on the uses and social contest of glass artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period (fifth century B.C. to twelfth century A.D.) pp 3–43
- Brill, R., Tong, S. and Dohrenwend, D. (1991) Chemical analysis of some early Chinese glasses. In Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds) Scientific research in early Chinese glass. Proceeding of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp: 21-26
- Cheng Zhuhai and Zhou Changyuan (1991) A 'glass garment' from a Western Han tomb in Jiangsu Province. In Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds) Scientific research in early Chinese glass. Proceeding of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp: 21-26
- Gao Zhixi (1991) A glass bi and a decorated sword from Hunan province. In Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds) Scientific research in early Chinese glass. Proceeding of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp: 119-123
- Jenyns, R.Soame Jenyns (art historian)Roger Soame Jenyns , who usually wrote his name simply asSoame Jenyns was a British art historian, known as an expert on East Asian ceramics.Roger Soame Jenyns was educated at Eton and at Magdalene College of Cambridge University...
(1981) Chinese Art. Phaidon Press - Kerr, R. and Wood, N. (2004) Part XII: Ceramic technology. In Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press
- Pinder-Wilson, R. (1991) The Islamic lands and China. In Tait, H. (ed) Five thousand years of glass. University of Pennsylvania Press, pp 112–143
- Shi Meiguang, He Ouli, Wu Zongdao and Zhou Fuzheng (1991) Investigations of some ancient Chinese lead glasses. In Brill, R. and Martin, J. (eds) Scientific research in early Chinese glass. Proceeding of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp: 21-26
- Shi Meiguang, Li Yinde and Zhou Fuzhen (1992) Some new glass finds in China. Journal of Glass Studies 34. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp: 23-26
- Zhang Fukang (1991) Scientific studies of early glasses excavated in China. InBrill, R. and Martin, J. (eds) Scientific research in early Chinese glass. Proceeding of the Archaeometry of Glass Sessions of the 1984 International Symposium on Glass, Beijin, September 7, 1984. The Corning Museum of Glass, pp:157-165