Battle of Mobei
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Mobei was a military campaign
fought in the northern part of the Gobi Desert
. It was part of a major strategic offensive launched by the Han Dynasty
in January, 119 BC
, into the heartland of the nomadic Xiongnu
. The battle was a success for the Han, whose forces were led by Wei Qing
and Huo Qubing
.
s", mainly because the fertile lands of the prosperous agricultural civilization presented attractive targets for the militaristic nomadic tribes. Throughout ancient Chinese history, protecting the northern borders from nomadic raids had been a military priority. During the Zhou Dynasty
, northern vassal state
s such as Yan
, Zhao
and Qin
resorted to defensive strategies, constructing elongated fortresses that served as the precursors of the Great Wall of China
. During the Qin Dynasty
, the first emperor Qin Shi Huang
conscripted thousands of civilian labourers to perfect the Great Wall in order to reinforce military campaigns along the northern border.
Han Dynasty
China
and the nomadic Xiongnu Empire had a very bitter relationship. The Xiongnu were initially a group of steppe tribes kept in check by the Qin Empire's military offensives under General Meng Tian
. With the collapse of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent Chinese civil war
, the Xiongnu gained the opportunity to become unified under Modu Shanyu
and quickly expanded into a powerful tribal confederacy
that ruled over a vast territory across Central and East Asia. The Xiongnu then invaded and occupied the fertile Hetao Grassland. When the Chu-Han contention
concluded, Emperor Gao recognized the threat posed by its hostile northern neighbour and in 200 BC
launched a massive campaign. After the Han army was lured into an ambush and encircled by 300,000 elite Xiongnu cavalry for seven days, the siege was relieved only after messengers were sent to bribe the Shanyu's wife. Following this failure, the Han emperor realized that the nation, just recovered from a massive civil war, was not yet strong enough to confront the Xiongnu and therefore resorted to the so-called "marriage alliance", or heqin
, in order to ease hostility and buy time to strengthen the nation. Despite the humiliating periodic heqin and giving of gifts, the Han borders were still frequently raided by Xiongnu forces over the next seven decades.
During his reign, Emperor Wu of Han
decided that the nation was finally strong enough to solve the Xiongnu problem. The "peaceful" atmosphere was broken in 133 BC
after a large ambush operation
was staged at Mayi but aborted after the Xiongnu discovered the trap and retreated. In 129 BC
, the Han forces had their first proper victory against the Xiongnu under the command of the young Wei Qing
with a long-distance raid on the Xiongnu holy site at Longcheng (蘢城). Over the next ten years, Emperor Wu repeatedly deployed Wei and his vigorous nephew Huo Qubing
against Xiongnu forces thus recapturing large areas of land and dealing devastating blows.
Evicted by the defeats, Yizhixie Chanyu (伊稚邪) took Zhao Xin
's advice, and the Xiongnu tribes retreated to the north of the Gobi Desert
, hoping that the barren land would serve as a natural barrier against Han offensives. In 119 BC
, Emperor Wu planned a massive expeditionary campaign. Chinese forces were deployed in two columns, each consisting of 50,000 cavalry
and over 100,000 infantry
. Wei Qing and Huo Qubing served as the supreme commanders, and set off from Dai Prefecture
(代郡) and Dingxiang
(定襄).
to attack from Dingxiang but information from a Xiongnu prisoner of war
suggested that the Chanyu's main force was deployed to the east at Dai Prefecture, although the information actually proved to be false. Emperor Wu, who had been distancing Wei Qing
and giving the younger Huo more attention and favour, ordered the two columns to switch routes in the hope of letting Huo (who was preferentially assigned the most elite troopers) engage the Chanyu.
Huo Qubing
's forces set off from Dai Prefecture, marched over 1,000 miles and directly engaged the forces of the Xiongnu's Worthy Prince of the East
(左賢王, "Wise King of the East"). The battle was swift and decisive, as the Worthy Prince's forces were no match for Huo's elite cavalry. The Huo's army quickly encircled and overran their enemy, killing 70,443 men and capturing three Xiongnu lords and 83 nobles. Huo Qubing's forces suffered a 20% casualty rate but were quickly resupplied locally from their capture. He then went on to conduct a series of rituals upon arrival at the Khentii Mountains
(狼居胥山, and the more northern 姑衍山) in order to symbolize the historic Han victory, then continued his pursuit as far as Lake Baikal
(瀚海), effectively annihilating the Xiongnu clan.
A separate division led by Lu Bode
(路博德), set off on a strategically flanking route from Right Beiping
(右北平), joined forces with Huo after arriving in time with 2,800 enemy kills. The combined forces then returned in triumph.
's force, setting off from Dingxiang, was comparatively weaker than its eastern counterpart, as it consisted mainly of leftovers from Huo Qubing's preferential picks. Wei Qing also had other liabilities — he had five generals under his command that required assignments, including an old but enthusiastic Li Guang
. Li Guang insisted that he wanted a vanguard position as promised by Emperor Wu, who also secretly messaged Wei not to do so as Li was well known to be jinx
ed with "bad fortune". Wei Qing then assigned Li Guang to combine forces with Zhao Shiqi (赵食其/趙食其) on a barren eastern flanking route, an arrangement that Li protested against and angrily stormed out of the main camp.
The Han army mobilized as planned. After a journey of over 500 miles, they encountered the Chanyu's main forces of 80,000 cavalry. This was unexpected, as the original strategy was to let Huo Qubing's elite troops deal with Chanyu's elite cavalry (the reason that the two Han columns switched route). The Xiongnu forces, however, had been long waiting in anticipation to ambush
their adversary. The Han forces, on the other hand, were tired and outnumbered, especially since the eastern division had not yet arrived on the battlefield. Without hesitation, the Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a 10,000-strong vanguard of cavalry.
Wei Qing recognized the odds against him and quickly took defensive countermeasures
. He ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armoured chariot
s (武刚车/武剛車) in a ring
formation
s, creating mobile fortresses
that provided archer
s, crossbowmen and infantry
protection from the Xiongnu's powerful cavalry charges
, and allowed Han troops to utilize their ranged weapon
s' advantages of precision
. A 5,000-strong force of cavalry was deployed to reinforce the array
and eradicate any Xiongnu forces that managed to infiltrate the ringed chariots. This tactic proved effective in countering the momentum of the nomadic cavalry, as the Xiongnu forces were unable to breach the Han army's lines
. With the Xiongnu's initial energy neutralized, the battle solidified into a stalemate
with neither side making significant gains or losses.
This stalemate lasted until dusk, when a sandstorm
obscured the battlefield. Knowing that this was his chance, Wei Qing sent in his main force. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and encircled the Chanyu's army from both flanks. The Xiongnu's lines were overwhelmed, and their morale
broken by the sight of Han soldiers attacking them in the darkness. Seeing that his forces were completely overrun, the Chanyu escaped under the escort of only a few hundred men. The Han forces killed over 19,000 enemies and pursued the remainder another 100 miles to the Khangai Mountains where they besieged then captured the Fortress of Zhao Xin
located in the Orkhon Valley
. After a day spent regrouping and receiving fresh supplies, the Han forces burned the stronghold to the ground, before returning in triumph.
The eastern division, commanded by Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi, got lost in the desert and missed the battle entirely, only rejoining the main force on Wei Qing's way home. As a result, Li and Zhao were summoned to a court martial for failing to accomplish orders and putting the battle strategy at risk. Li Guang, frustrated and humiliated as this was his last chance to obtain sufficient battle distinctions to receive a marquessate as a reward, committed suicide to preserve his honour.
In the western theatre the battle proved more strategically decisive. Chanyu's main forces was so badly defeated that they were unable to recover. The Chanyu went missing for over 10 days, resulting in his tribe presuming he was dead and installing a new leader who had to be removed after the Chanyu finally reappeared. The Xiongnu were forced to retreat further north with their threat to the Han Dynasty's northern border largely obliterated.
in the ten years from 129
to 119 BC
were enormous: the Han army lost almost 80% of their horses on these expeditions, due to combat as well as non-combative losses such as the harsh journey and plague caused by the Xiongnu contaminating the water supply with dead cattle.
Economic pressure on the central Han government led to new tax
es being introduced, increasing the burden on average peasants. The population of the Han Empire dropped significantly as a result of famine and excessive taxing to fund military mobilisations.
The Xiongnu, however, suffered a more lethal blow, as their military losses would reflect directly on their economy. Apart from loss of manpower due to wartime casualties and diseases, the nomadic Xiongnu lost millions of livestock, their vital food resource, to the Han army, and the war left large proportion of the remaining cattle suffering miscarriages during their reproductive seasons.
Furthermore, the loss of control over the fertile southern grassland meant that Xiongnu had to hole up in the cold, barren land of the northern Gobi Desert
and Siberia
, struggling to survive. As a result, there was a true ceasefire
between the Han Dynasty
and Xiongnu for seven years, which ended after a Xiongnu raid in 112 BC
at Wuyuan
. The Xiongnu, however, never recovered to the strength of their past glory days, and would break apart into smaller clans in the coming decades.
Military campaign
In the military sciences, the term military campaign applies to large scale, long duration, significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of inter-related military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war...
fought in the northern part of the Gobi Desert
Gobi Desert
The Gobi is a large desert region in Asia. It covers parts of northern and northwestern China, and of southern Mongolia. The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the...
. It was part of a major strategic offensive launched by the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
in January, 119 BC
119 BC
Year 119 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Dalmaticus and Cotta...
, into the heartland of the nomadic Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
. The battle was a success for the Han, whose forces were led by Wei Qing
Wei Qing
Wei Qing , born Zheng Qing in Linfen, Shanxi, was a famous general during Han Dynasty of China, whose campaigns against the Xiongnu earned him great acclaim. He was the younger half-brother of Empress Wei Zifu, making him the the Emperor Wu's brother-in-law...
and Huo Qubing
Huo Qubing
Huo Qubing , born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. Being the illegitimate son of Wei Shaoer, he was the nephew of Wei Qing and Empress Wei Zifu....
.
Background
Military tension had for a long time existed between ancient China and the northern "barbarianBarbarian
Barbarian and savage are terms used to refer to a person who is perceived to be uncivilized. The word is often used either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage...
s", mainly because the fertile lands of the prosperous agricultural civilization presented attractive targets for the militaristic nomadic tribes. Throughout ancient Chinese history, protecting the northern borders from nomadic raids had been a military priority. During the Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
, northern vassal state
Vassal state
A vassal state is any state that is subordinate to another. The vassal in these cases is the ruler, rather than the state itself. Being a vassal most commonly implies providing military assistance to the dominant state when requested to do so; it sometimes implies paying tribute, but a state which...
s such as Yan
Yan (state)
Yān was a state during the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history. Its capital was Ji...
, Zhao
Zhao (state)
Zhao was a significant Chinese state during the Warring States Period, along with six others...
and Qin
Qin (state)
The State of Qin was a Chinese feudal state that existed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history...
resorted to defensive strategies, constructing elongated fortresses that served as the precursors of the Great Wall of China
Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in northern China, built originally to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire against intrusions by various nomadic groups...
. During the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
, the first emperor Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
conscripted thousands of civilian labourers to perfect the Great Wall in order to reinforce military campaigns along the northern border.
Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and the nomadic Xiongnu Empire had a very bitter relationship. The Xiongnu were initially a group of steppe tribes kept in check by the Qin Empire's military offensives under General Meng Tian
Meng Tian
Meng Tian was a general of the Qin Dynasty who distinguished himself in campaigns against the Xiongnu and in the construction of the Great Wall of China. He was the elder brother of Meng Yi. He descended from a great line of military generals and architects...
. With the collapse of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent Chinese civil war
Chu-Han contention
The Chu–Han Contention was a post-Qin Dynasty interregnum period in Chinese history. Following the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, Xiang Yu split the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms. Two prominent contending powers, Western Chu and Han, emerged from these principalities and engaged in a...
, the Xiongnu gained the opportunity to become unified under Modu Shanyu
Modu Shanyu
Modu Chanyu was born c. 234 BCE was the fourth known emperor and founder of the Xiongnu Empire after he killed his father in 209 BCE. The years of his rule were 209 BCE to 174 BCE...
and quickly expanded into a powerful tribal confederacy
Confederation
A confederation in modern political terms is a permanent union of political units for common action in relation to other units. Usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution, confederations tend to be established for dealing with critical issues such as defense, foreign...
that ruled over a vast territory across Central and East Asia. The Xiongnu then invaded and occupied the fertile Hetao Grassland. When the Chu-Han contention
Chu-Han contention
The Chu–Han Contention was a post-Qin Dynasty interregnum period in Chinese history. Following the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, Xiang Yu split the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms. Two prominent contending powers, Western Chu and Han, emerged from these principalities and engaged in a...
concluded, Emperor Gao recognized the threat posed by its hostile northern neighbour and in 200 BC
200 BC
Year 200 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Maximus and Cotta...
launched a massive campaign. After the Han army was lured into an ambush and encircled by 300,000 elite Xiongnu cavalry for seven days, the siege was relieved only after messengers were sent to bribe the Shanyu's wife. Following this failure, the Han emperor realized that the nation, just recovered from a massive civil war, was not yet strong enough to confront the Xiongnu and therefore resorted to the so-called "marriage alliance", or heqin
Heqin
Heqin was a term used in ancient China for an alliance by marriage. It usually referred to the Chinese Emperor marrying off a "princess" to an aggressive "barbarian" chieftain or ruler. The theory was that in exchange for the marriage, the chieftain would cease all aggressive actions toward China...
, in order to ease hostility and buy time to strengthen the nation. Despite the humiliating periodic heqin and giving of gifts, the Han borders were still frequently raided by Xiongnu forces over the next seven decades.
During his reign, Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
decided that the nation was finally strong enough to solve the Xiongnu problem. The "peaceful" atmosphere was broken in 133 BC
133 BC
Year 133 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Scaevola and Frugi...
after a large ambush operation
Battle of Mayi
The Battle of Mayi was an abortive ambush operation by the Han Dynasty against the invading Xiongnu forces; casualties were minimal. It marked the end of de jure peace between the Han Dynasty and Xiongnu, and stimulated the use of effective cavalry forces and offensive military policies by the Han...
was staged at Mayi but aborted after the Xiongnu discovered the trap and retreated. In 129 BC
129 BC
Year 129 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tuditanus and Aquillius...
, the Han forces had their first proper victory against the Xiongnu under the command of the young Wei Qing
Wei Qing
Wei Qing , born Zheng Qing in Linfen, Shanxi, was a famous general during Han Dynasty of China, whose campaigns against the Xiongnu earned him great acclaim. He was the younger half-brother of Empress Wei Zifu, making him the the Emperor Wu's brother-in-law...
with a long-distance raid on the Xiongnu holy site at Longcheng (蘢城). Over the next ten years, Emperor Wu repeatedly deployed Wei and his vigorous nephew Huo Qubing
Huo Qubing
Huo Qubing , born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. Being the illegitimate son of Wei Shaoer, he was the nephew of Wei Qing and Empress Wei Zifu....
against Xiongnu forces thus recapturing large areas of land and dealing devastating blows.
Evicted by the defeats, Yizhixie Chanyu (伊稚邪) took Zhao Xin
Zhao Xin
Zhao Xin , was originally a marquis of Xiongnu stock, who previously surrendered to the Han Dynasty. His name Zhao Xin was probably adopted through during his service at Han. He was one of the six generals led by Wei Qing during an expedition in 123 BC, and led a 3,000-strong vanguard forces...
's advice, and the Xiongnu tribes retreated to the north of the Gobi Desert
Gobi Desert
The Gobi is a large desert region in Asia. It covers parts of northern and northwestern China, and of southern Mongolia. The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the...
, hoping that the barren land would serve as a natural barrier against Han offensives. In 119 BC
119 BC
Year 119 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Dalmaticus and Cotta...
, Emperor Wu planned a massive expeditionary campaign. Chinese forces were deployed in two columns, each consisting of 50,000 cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
and over 100,000 infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
. Wei Qing and Huo Qubing served as the supreme commanders, and set off from Dai Prefecture
Zhangjiakou
Zhangjiakou, also known also by several other names, is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Hebei province of North China, adjacent to Beijing to the southeast. Its administrative area has a population of 4.35 million, and covers...
(代郡) and Dingxiang
Hohhot
Hohhot , is a city in north-central China and the capital of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, serving as the region's administrative, economic, and cultural centre....
(定襄).
The battles
The initial plan called for Huo QubingHuo Qubing
Huo Qubing , born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. Being the illegitimate son of Wei Shaoer, he was the nephew of Wei Qing and Empress Wei Zifu....
to attack from Dingxiang but information from a Xiongnu prisoner of war
Prisoner of war
A prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
suggested that the Chanyu's main force was deployed to the east at Dai Prefecture, although the information actually proved to be false. Emperor Wu, who had been distancing Wei Qing
Wei Qing
Wei Qing , born Zheng Qing in Linfen, Shanxi, was a famous general during Han Dynasty of China, whose campaigns against the Xiongnu earned him great acclaim. He was the younger half-brother of Empress Wei Zifu, making him the the Emperor Wu's brother-in-law...
and giving the younger Huo more attention and favour, ordered the two columns to switch routes in the hope of letting Huo (who was preferentially assigned the most elite troopers) engage the Chanyu.
The Eastern (Dai Prefecture) Theatre
The eastern theatre was quite straightforward, as the Han forces deployed were superior to the opposing Xiongnu forces.Huo Qubing
Huo Qubing
Huo Qubing , born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. Being the illegitimate son of Wei Shaoer, he was the nephew of Wei Qing and Empress Wei Zifu....
's forces set off from Dai Prefecture, marched over 1,000 miles and directly engaged the forces of the Xiongnu's Worthy Prince of the East
Worthy Prince
Tuqi was a high office in the Xiongnu confederation, a title also known to the Chinese as "worthy/wise prince/king". In the 6-8th centuries AD the Chinese annalists used the expression 贤王 Xian wang only in references to the Eastern Türks ....
(左賢王, "Wise King of the East"). The battle was swift and decisive, as the Worthy Prince's forces were no match for Huo's elite cavalry. The Huo's army quickly encircled and overran their enemy, killing 70,443 men and capturing three Xiongnu lords and 83 nobles. Huo Qubing's forces suffered a 20% casualty rate but were quickly resupplied locally from their capture. He then went on to conduct a series of rituals upon arrival at the Khentii Mountains
Khentii Mountains
The Khentii Mountains are a mountain range in the Töv and Khentii Provinces in northern Mongolia. The chain overlaps the Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area and includes Mongolia's sacred mountain, Burkhan Khaldun, which is associated with the origin of Genghis Khan.The range forms the watershed...
(狼居胥山, and the more northern 姑衍山) in order to symbolize the historic Han victory, then continued his pursuit as far as Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal is the world's oldest at 30 million years old and deepest lake with an average depth of 744.4 metres.Located in the south of the Russian region of Siberia, between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast, it is the most voluminous freshwater lake in the...
(瀚海), effectively annihilating the Xiongnu clan.
A separate division led by Lu Bode
Lu Bode
Lu Bode was a military leader during the Western Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.Originally from Pingzhou in the Xihe region of western China , in 119 BCE Emperor Wu of Han Lu Bode was a military leader during the Western Han Dynasty period of Chinese history.Originally from Pingzhou (平州)...
(路博德), set off on a strategically flanking route from Right Beiping
Tangshan
"唐山"redirects here. For an alternative name of China, see Names of China#TangTangshan is a largely industrial prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China. It has become known for the 1976 Tangshan earthquake which measured 7.8 on the Richter scale and killed at least...
(右北平), joined forces with Huo after arriving in time with 2,800 enemy kills. The combined forces then returned in triumph.
The Western (Dingxiang) Theatre
The western theatre, although not regarded with as much expectation from Emperor Wu, proved more dramatic. Wei QingWei Qing
Wei Qing , born Zheng Qing in Linfen, Shanxi, was a famous general during Han Dynasty of China, whose campaigns against the Xiongnu earned him great acclaim. He was the younger half-brother of Empress Wei Zifu, making him the the Emperor Wu's brother-in-law...
's force, setting off from Dingxiang, was comparatively weaker than its eastern counterpart, as it consisted mainly of leftovers from Huo Qubing's preferential picks. Wei Qing also had other liabilities — he had five generals under his command that required assignments, including an old but enthusiastic Li Guang
Li Guang
Lĭ Guăng , born in Tianshui, Gansu, was a famous general of the Han Dynasty. Nicknamed The Flying General by his Xiongnu enemies , he fought primarily in the campaigns against the Xiongnu peoples to the north of Han China...
. Li Guang insisted that he wanted a vanguard position as promised by Emperor Wu, who also secretly messaged Wei not to do so as Li was well known to be jinx
Jinx
A jinx, in popular superstition and folklore, is:* A type of curse placed on a person that makes them prey to many minor misfortunes and other forms of bad luck;...
ed with "bad fortune". Wei Qing then assigned Li Guang to combine forces with Zhao Shiqi (赵食其/趙食其) on a barren eastern flanking route, an arrangement that Li protested against and angrily stormed out of the main camp.
The Han army mobilized as planned. After a journey of over 500 miles, they encountered the Chanyu's main forces of 80,000 cavalry. This was unexpected, as the original strategy was to let Huo Qubing's elite troops deal with Chanyu's elite cavalry (the reason that the two Han columns switched route). The Xiongnu forces, however, had been long waiting in anticipation to ambush
Ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactic, in which the aggressors take advantage of concealment and the element of surprise to attack an unsuspecting enemy from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind hilltops...
their adversary. The Han forces, on the other hand, were tired and outnumbered, especially since the eastern division had not yet arrived on the battlefield. Without hesitation, the Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a 10,000-strong vanguard of cavalry.
Wei Qing recognized the odds against him and quickly took defensive countermeasures
Defense (military)
Defense has several uses in the sphere of military application.Personal defense implies measures taken by individual soldiers in protecting themselves whether by use of protective materials such as armor, or field construction of trenches or a bunker, or by using weapons that prevent the enemy...
. He ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armoured chariot
Chariot (Ancient China)
The ancient Chinese chariot was used as an attack and pursuit vehicle on the open fields and plains of Ancient China during the Shang The ancient Chinese chariot was used as an attack and pursuit vehicle on the open fields and plains of Ancient China during the Shang The ancient Chinese chariot ...
s (武刚车/武剛車) in a ring
Circle
A circle is a simple shape of Euclidean geometry consisting of those points in a plane that are a given distance from a given point, the centre. The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius....
formation
Tactical formation
A tactical formation is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels...
s, creating mobile fortresses
Wagon fort
A Laager, also known as a wagon fort, is a mobile fortification made of wagons arranged into a rectangle, a circle or other shape and possibly joined with each other, an improvised military camp....
that provided archer
Archery
Archery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...
s, crossbowmen and infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
protection from the Xiongnu's powerful cavalry charges
Charge (warfare)
A charge is a maneuver in battle in which soldiers advance towards their enemy at their best speed in an attempt to engage in close combat. The charge is the dominant shock attack and has been the key tactic and decisive moment of most battles in history...
, and allowed Han troops to utilize their ranged weapon
Ranged weapon
A ranged weapon is any weapon that can harm targets at distances greater than hand-to-hand distance. In contrast, a weapon intended to be used in man-to-man combat is called a melee weapon....
s' advantages of precision
Accuracy and precision
In the fields of science, engineering, industry and statistics, the accuracy of a measurement system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that quantity's actual value. The precision of a measurement system, also called reproducibility or repeatability, is the degree to which...
. A 5,000-strong force of cavalry was deployed to reinforce the array
Tactical formation
A tactical formation is the arrangement or deployment of moving military forces such as infantry, cavalry, AFVs, military aircraft, or naval vessels...
and eradicate any Xiongnu forces that managed to infiltrate the ringed chariots. This tactic proved effective in countering the momentum of the nomadic cavalry, as the Xiongnu forces were unable to breach the Han army's lines
Front line
A front line is the farthest-most forward position of an armed force's personnel and equipment - generally in respect of maritime or land forces. Forward Line of Own Troops , or Forward Edge of Battle Area are technical terms used by all branches of the armed services...
. With the Xiongnu's initial energy neutralized, the battle solidified into a stalemate
Stalemate
Stalemate is a situation in chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check but has no legal moves. A stalemate ends the game in a draw. Stalemate is covered in the rules of chess....
with neither side making significant gains or losses.
This stalemate lasted until dusk, when a sandstorm
Dust storm
A dust / sand storm is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Particles are transported by saltation and suspension, causing soil to move from one place and deposition...
obscured the battlefield. Knowing that this was his chance, Wei Qing sent in his main force. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and encircled the Chanyu's army from both flanks. The Xiongnu's lines were overwhelmed, and their morale
Morale
Morale, also known as esprit de corps when discussing the morale of a group, is an intangible term used to describe the capacity of people to maintain belief in an institution or a goal, or even in oneself and others...
broken by the sight of Han soldiers attacking them in the darkness. Seeing that his forces were completely overrun, the Chanyu escaped under the escort of only a few hundred men. The Han forces killed over 19,000 enemies and pursued the remainder another 100 miles to the Khangai Mountains where they besieged then captured the Fortress of Zhao Xin
Zhao Xin
Zhao Xin , was originally a marquis of Xiongnu stock, who previously surrendered to the Han Dynasty. His name Zhao Xin was probably adopted through during his service at Han. He was one of the six generals led by Wei Qing during an expedition in 123 BC, and led a 3,000-strong vanguard forces...
located in the Orkhon Valley
Orkhon Valley
Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape sprawls along the banks of the Orkhon River in Central Mongolia, some 360 km west from the capital Ulaanbaatar. It was inscribed by UNESCO in the World Heritage List as representing evolution of nomadic pastoral traditions spanning more than two millennia...
. After a day spent regrouping and receiving fresh supplies, the Han forces burned the stronghold to the ground, before returning in triumph.
The eastern division, commanded by Li Guang and Zhao Shiqi, got lost in the desert and missed the battle entirely, only rejoining the main force on Wei Qing's way home. As a result, Li and Zhao were summoned to a court martial for failing to accomplish orders and putting the battle strategy at risk. Li Guang, frustrated and humiliated as this was his last chance to obtain sufficient battle distinctions to receive a marquessate as a reward, committed suicide to preserve his honour.
In the western theatre the battle proved more strategically decisive. Chanyu's main forces was so badly defeated that they were unable to recover. The Chanyu went missing for over 10 days, resulting in his tribe presuming he was dead and installing a new leader who had to be removed after the Chanyu finally reappeared. The Xiongnu were forced to retreat further north with their threat to the Han Dynasty's northern border largely obliterated.
Aftermath
The costs of the victorious campaigns over the XiongnuXiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
in the ten years from 129
129 BC
Year 129 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tuditanus and Aquillius...
to 119 BC
119 BC
Year 119 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Dalmaticus and Cotta...
were enormous: the Han army lost almost 80% of their horses on these expeditions, due to combat as well as non-combative losses such as the harsh journey and plague caused by the Xiongnu contaminating the water supply with dead cattle.
Economic pressure on the central Han government led to new tax
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
es being introduced, increasing the burden on average peasants. The population of the Han Empire dropped significantly as a result of famine and excessive taxing to fund military mobilisations.
The Xiongnu, however, suffered a more lethal blow, as their military losses would reflect directly on their economy. Apart from loss of manpower due to wartime casualties and diseases, the nomadic Xiongnu lost millions of livestock, their vital food resource, to the Han army, and the war left large proportion of the remaining cattle suffering miscarriages during their reproductive seasons.
Furthermore, the loss of control over the fertile southern grassland meant that Xiongnu had to hole up in the cold, barren land of the northern Gobi Desert
Gobi Desert
The Gobi is a large desert region in Asia. It covers parts of northern and northwestern China, and of southern Mongolia. The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the...
and Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
, struggling to survive. As a result, there was a true ceasefire
Ceasefire
A ceasefire is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a formal treaty, but they have also been called as part of an informal understanding between opposing forces...
between the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
and Xiongnu for seven years, which ended after a Xiongnu raid in 112 BC
112 BC
Year 112 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Drusus and Caesoninus...
at Wuyuan
Baotou
Baotou is a mid-sized industrial city in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, its urban areas are home to a population of approximately 1.78 million, with a total population of over 2.65 million accounting for counties under...
. The Xiongnu, however, never recovered to the strength of their past glory days, and would break apart into smaller clans in the coming decades.