Speculum Astronomiae
Encyclopedia
Albertus Magnus
, produced the Speculum astronomiae (de refutatione librorum astronomiae, incipit
Occasione quorundam librorum apud quos non est radix sciencie) sometime after 1260 to defend astrology
as a Christian form of knowledge (Zambelli, 1992; Hendrix, 2007). Though Albert's authorship of this text has been debated by such scholars as Pierre Mandonnet
and, more recently, Nicholas Weill-Parot, the evidence in favor of Albert's authorship is quite strong and most scholars today recognize it as a genuinely Albertine work (Mandonnet, 1910; Weill-Parot, 2002;Hendrix, 2010; Thorndike, 1923-28; Lemay, N.D.).
Albert wrote the Speculum in response to the debate concerning medieval astrology that peaked in 1277 at the University of Paris
, with Bishop Stephen Tempier's issuance of a list of 219 propositions that were forbidden to be believed, or indeed even to be discussed (Bianchi, 1999). Bishop Tempier and those who thought like him were motivated by a concern that much of the Aristotelian knowledge being integrated into European universities represented a challenge to Christianity. For Tempier, astrology was one of the most problematic areas of knowledge, motivating him to direct a sizeable number of these condemnations at that discipline. In particular, he was concerned that any form of knowledge promising to allow one to predict the future would negate humankind's free will
. After all, how can one have free will if our future actions are already predetermined and mapped out in the stars?
Albert, however, built upon an idea originally expressed by Ptolemy
in the 2nd century, and summed up by the 9th century Arabic scientist Albumasar, as: "The wise man will dominate the stars," to construct an argument that astrology perfected, rather than negated free will (Zambelli, 1992; Lemay, 1962). Albert argued that celestial influence began with God before being transmitted through each of the nine upper spheres of creation, down to the tenth sphere of the sublunar realm, where we all live our lives. As this influence is passed from the stars to each one of the planets and then on to the Earth and its creatures, it picks up accretions that were not part of God's original intent (Hendrix, 2007). Therefore, terrestrial creatures did not received divine influence in its pure form, but with various changes imparted by the heavenly bodies. These accretions meant that the force of celestial influence lacked God's purity and His ability to enforce change.
Furthermore, the celestial bodies through their corporeal nature caused this flow of influence, which is perceived as visible light, to function as a bodily, rather than a spiritual, force (Hendrix, 2007). Because of this quasi-corporeal status, Albert maintained that the transmitted influence could affect the body, but not the soul. This influence would result in corporeal impulses--such as lust or gluttonous desire--that influenced the soul only indirectly, through the body. Because of this, the person receiving the influence could choose to override it through an act of will. But since most people are perfectly content to be moved along by their physical impulses, astrology would be able to accurately predict future actions in almost every case. However, a knowledge of astrology helps one to resist the influences that celestial bodies impart, therefore assisting one in resisting these bodily impulses. Thus, in Albert's argument, astrology perfects, rather than negates, free will.
The Speculum became central to the debate about astrology in the medieval, Renaissance, and early-modern periods, with its status as a source not declining until the early seventeenth century (Hendrix, 2007). For more than a dozen generations those who wrote upon astrology almost invariably cited the Speculum or used its arguments, whether to defend celestial divination, such as the 13th century physician Peter d'Abano did, or to attack it as, we see with the 15th century humanist Pico della Mirandola.
Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, is a Catholic saint. He was a German Dominican friar and a bishop, who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl...
, produced the Speculum astronomiae (de refutatione librorum astronomiae, incipit
Incipit
Incipit is a Latin word meaning "it begins". The incipit of a text, such as a poem, song, or book, is the first few words of its opening line. In music, it can also refer to the opening notes of a composition. Before the development of titles, texts were often referred to by their incipits...
Occasione quorundam librorum apud quos non est radix sciencie) sometime after 1260 to defend astrology
Astrology
Astrology consists of a number of belief systems which hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events in the human world...
as a Christian form of knowledge (Zambelli, 1992; Hendrix, 2007). Though Albert's authorship of this text has been debated by such scholars as Pierre Mandonnet
Pierre Mandonnet
Pierre Mandonnet was a Belgian Dominican historian, important in the neo-Thomist trend of historiography and the recovery of medieval philosophy. He made his reputation with a study of Siger of Brabant....
and, more recently, Nicholas Weill-Parot, the evidence in favor of Albert's authorship is quite strong and most scholars today recognize it as a genuinely Albertine work (Mandonnet, 1910; Weill-Parot, 2002;Hendrix, 2010; Thorndike, 1923-28; Lemay, N.D.).
Albert wrote the Speculum in response to the debate concerning medieval astrology that peaked in 1277 at the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
, with Bishop Stephen Tempier's issuance of a list of 219 propositions that were forbidden to be believed, or indeed even to be discussed (Bianchi, 1999). Bishop Tempier and those who thought like him were motivated by a concern that much of the Aristotelian knowledge being integrated into European universities represented a challenge to Christianity. For Tempier, astrology was one of the most problematic areas of knowledge, motivating him to direct a sizeable number of these condemnations at that discipline. In particular, he was concerned that any form of knowledge promising to allow one to predict the future would negate humankind's free will
Free will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
. After all, how can one have free will if our future actions are already predetermined and mapped out in the stars?
Albert, however, built upon an idea originally expressed by Ptolemy
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy , was a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in Egypt under Roman rule, and is believed to have been born in the town of Ptolemais Hermiou in the...
in the 2nd century, and summed up by the 9th century Arabic scientist Albumasar, as: "The wise man will dominate the stars," to construct an argument that astrology perfected, rather than negated free will (Zambelli, 1992; Lemay, 1962). Albert argued that celestial influence began with God before being transmitted through each of the nine upper spheres of creation, down to the tenth sphere of the sublunar realm, where we all live our lives. As this influence is passed from the stars to each one of the planets and then on to the Earth and its creatures, it picks up accretions that were not part of God's original intent (Hendrix, 2007). Therefore, terrestrial creatures did not received divine influence in its pure form, but with various changes imparted by the heavenly bodies. These accretions meant that the force of celestial influence lacked God's purity and His ability to enforce change.
Furthermore, the celestial bodies through their corporeal nature caused this flow of influence, which is perceived as visible light, to function as a bodily, rather than a spiritual, force (Hendrix, 2007). Because of this quasi-corporeal status, Albert maintained that the transmitted influence could affect the body, but not the soul. This influence would result in corporeal impulses--such as lust or gluttonous desire--that influenced the soul only indirectly, through the body. Because of this, the person receiving the influence could choose to override it through an act of will. But since most people are perfectly content to be moved along by their physical impulses, astrology would be able to accurately predict future actions in almost every case. However, a knowledge of astrology helps one to resist the influences that celestial bodies impart, therefore assisting one in resisting these bodily impulses. Thus, in Albert's argument, astrology perfects, rather than negates, free will.
The Speculum became central to the debate about astrology in the medieval, Renaissance, and early-modern periods, with its status as a source not declining until the early seventeenth century (Hendrix, 2007). For more than a dozen generations those who wrote upon astrology almost invariably cited the Speculum or used its arguments, whether to defend celestial divination, such as the 13th century physician Peter d'Abano did, or to attack it as, we see with the 15th century humanist Pico della Mirandola.
Literature
- L. Bianchi, Censure et Liberte intellectuelle a l' Universite de Paris (XIII-XIV siecles). Paris: J. Vrin, 1999.
- Scott Hendrix, How Albert the Great’s Speculum astronomiae Was interpreted and Used by Four Centuries of Readers: A Study in Late Medieval Medicine, Astronomy and Astrology. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2010.
- Richard Lemay, “The Paris Prohibitions of 1210/15, the formulas of absolution by Gregory IX (1231), and the Incipit of Albertus Magnus’ Speculum Astronomiae. Origin and canonical character of the Speculum Astronomiae.” Unpublished paper, N.D.
- Richard Lemay, Abu Ma’shar and Latin Aristotelianism. Beirut: The Catholic Press, 1962.
- Pierre Mandonnet, “Roger Bacon et le Speculum Astronomiae (1277).” Revue neoscolastique de philosophie 17 (1910): 313- 335.
- Lynn Thorndike, History of Magic and Experimental Science. 8 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1923-28.
- Nicolas Weill-Parot, Les “images astrologiques” au moyen âge et à la renaissance: spéculations intellectuelles et pratiques magiques (XIIe-XVe siècle). Paris: Champion, 2002.
- Paola Zambelli, The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma: Astrology, Theology, and Science in Albertus Magnus and his Contemporaries. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992.