Zhi Qian
Encyclopedia
Zhi Qian was a Chinese Buddhist layman of Yuezhi
ancestry who translated a wide range of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. He was the grandson (or according to another source, the son) of an immigrant from the country of the Great Yuezhi, an area that overlapped to at least some extent with the territory of the Kushan Empire
. According to the Chinese custom of the time
, he used the ethnicon "Zhi" as his surname, to indicate his foreign ancestry.
Born in north China, at an early age Zhi Qian became a disciple of Zhi Liang, who in turn had been a disciple of the famous translator of Mahāyāna
scriptures, Lokakṣema
(fl. c. 168-189 CE), who was likewise of Yuezhi ancestry. Toward the end of the Han Dynasty
, as chaos spread throughout the north, Zhi Qian migrated with several dozens of his countrymen to the southern Wu
kingdom. Settling first at Wuchang, then in Jianye
after 229
CE. According to the earliest extant biography, contained in Sengyou
's Chu sanzang ji ji, completed c. 518 CE, the Wu ruler, Sun Quan
was so impressed with Zhi Qian's abilities that he appointed him tutor to the crown prince.
Though it seems likely that Zhi Qian had already begun translating Buddhist texts while in the northern capital of Luoyang
, the bulk of his translation activity was carried out in the south. His translations—of which more than two dozen are extant today—span a wide range of genres and include both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna scriptures. Among them are a number of āgama texts (i.e., non-Mahāyāna sūtras corresponding to scriptures found in the sutta section of the Pāli canon), didactic verses (including a version of the Dharmapada and of the *Arthapada, corresponding to the Pāli Aṭṭhakavagga), a biography of the Buddha, and several Mahāyāna sūtras, of which some of the most famous are the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa, the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha (dealing with the Pure Land of Amitābha), the Shorter Perfection of Wisdom scripture (corresponding to the Sanskrit Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā), and an early version of what subsequently became the Buddhāvataṃsaka.
It is extremely difficult to characterize Zhi Qian's translation style, for the corpus of his authentically attributed works ranges from elegant literary creations, in which most foreign names and terms are translated into Chinese, to much more cumbersome productions which bristle with multisyllabic transcriptions of Indian words. It seems likely that translations of the latter type, which resemble those produced by Lokakṣema, may have been produced early in his career when Zhi Qian was still an active member of the circle of Lokakṣema's heirs; the more literary works in Zhi Qian's corpus appear to have been produced after his move to the south, and they share many stylistic features with the work of his Wu-kingdom contemporary, Kang Senghui (fl. 247-280 CE). In particular, both Zhi Qian and Kang Senghui freely included indigenous Chinese religious terminology in their work. An additional factor in Zhi Qian's case was the fact that he revised a number of translations produced by his predecessors (especially Lokakṣema), which—together with his own apparent preference for variety—may have contributed to the inconsistencies in his vocabulary and style.
Toward the end of his life Zhi Qian became an upāsaka, taking the five lay precepts and retiring to a monastic environment in the mountains. When he died at the age of sixty (in 252 CE or shortly after), the Wu ruler of the time, Sun Liang
, is said to have written a letter to the monastic community mourning his death.
Yuezhi
The Yuezhi, or Rouzhi , also known as the Da Yuezhi or Da Rouzhi , were an ancient Central Asian people....
ancestry who translated a wide range of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. He was the grandson (or according to another source, the son) of an immigrant from the country of the Great Yuezhi, an area that overlapped to at least some extent with the territory of the Kushan Empire
Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire originally formed in the early 1st century AD under Kujula Kadphises in the territories of ancient Bactria on either side of the middle course of the Oxus in what is now northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.During the 1st and early 2nd centuries...
. According to the Chinese custom of the time
Chinese name
Personal names in Chinese culture follow a number of conventions different from those of personal names in Western cultures. Most noticeably, a Chinese name is written with the family name first and the given name next, therefore "John-Paul Smith" as a Chinese name would be "Smith John-Paul"...
, he used the ethnicon "Zhi" as his surname, to indicate his foreign ancestry.
Born in north China, at an early age Zhi Qian became a disciple of Zhi Liang, who in turn had been a disciple of the famous translator of Mahāyāna
Mahayana
Mahāyāna is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice...
scriptures, Lokakṣema
Lokaksema
Lokakṣema , born around 147 CE, was the earliest known Buddhist monk to have translated Mahayana sutras into the Chinese language and as such was an important figure in Buddhism in China. The name Lokakṣema means 'welfare of the world' in Sanskrit.-Origins:Lokaksema was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity...
(fl. c. 168-189 CE), who was likewise of Yuezhi ancestry. Toward the end of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, as chaos spread throughout the north, Zhi Qian migrated with several dozens of his countrymen to the southern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
kingdom. Settling first at Wuchang, then in Jianye
Jiankang
Jiankang was the capital city of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and Southern Dynasties. Its walls are extant ruins in the modern municipal region of Nanjing.-History:...
after 229
229
Year 229 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Severus and Cassius...
CE. According to the earliest extant biography, contained in Sengyou
Sengyou
Sengyou was a Buddhist monk, hailing from Nanjing, then called Jiankang . He became a monk at 14 at which time he studied and eventually taught the Vinaya...
's Chu sanzang ji ji, completed c. 518 CE, the Wu ruler, Sun Quan
Sun Quan
Sun Quan , son of Sun Jian, formally Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He ruled from 222 to 229 as King of Wu and from 229 to 252 as Emperor of Wu....
was so impressed with Zhi Qian's abilities that he appointed him tutor to the crown prince.
Though it seems likely that Zhi Qian had already begun translating Buddhist texts while in the northern capital of Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
, the bulk of his translation activity was carried out in the south. His translations—of which more than two dozen are extant today—span a wide range of genres and include both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna scriptures. Among them are a number of āgama texts (i.e., non-Mahāyāna sūtras corresponding to scriptures found in the sutta section of the Pāli canon), didactic verses (including a version of the Dharmapada and of the *Arthapada, corresponding to the Pāli Aṭṭhakavagga), a biography of the Buddha, and several Mahāyāna sūtras, of which some of the most famous are the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa, the Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha (dealing with the Pure Land of Amitābha), the Shorter Perfection of Wisdom scripture (corresponding to the Sanskrit Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā), and an early version of what subsequently became the Buddhāvataṃsaka.
It is extremely difficult to characterize Zhi Qian's translation style, for the corpus of his authentically attributed works ranges from elegant literary creations, in which most foreign names and terms are translated into Chinese, to much more cumbersome productions which bristle with multisyllabic transcriptions of Indian words. It seems likely that translations of the latter type, which resemble those produced by Lokakṣema, may have been produced early in his career when Zhi Qian was still an active member of the circle of Lokakṣema's heirs; the more literary works in Zhi Qian's corpus appear to have been produced after his move to the south, and they share many stylistic features with the work of his Wu-kingdom contemporary, Kang Senghui (fl. 247-280 CE). In particular, both Zhi Qian and Kang Senghui freely included indigenous Chinese religious terminology in their work. An additional factor in Zhi Qian's case was the fact that he revised a number of translations produced by his predecessors (especially Lokakṣema), which—together with his own apparent preference for variety—may have contributed to the inconsistencies in his vocabulary and style.
Toward the end of his life Zhi Qian became an upāsaka, taking the five lay precepts and retiring to a monastic environment in the mountains. When he died at the age of sixty (in 252 CE or shortly after), the Wu ruler of the time, Sun Liang
Sun Liang
Sun Liang was the second emperor of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was the founding emperor Sun Quan's youngest son and heir...
, is said to have written a letter to the monastic community mourning his death.