America's Critical Period
Encyclopedia
The term, Critical Period, coined by John Quincy Adams
, refers to the 1780s, a time right after the American Revolution
where the future of the newly formed nation was in the balance. More specifically, the "Critical Period" refers to the period of time following the end of the American Revolutionary War
in 1783 to the inauguration of George Washington
as President
in 1789. During this time, the newly independent former colonies were beset with a wide array of foreign and domestic problems. Some historians believe it was a bleak, terrible time for Americans, while others believe the term “Critical Period” is exaggerated, and that, while the 1780s were a time of dispute and change, they were also a time of economic growth and political maturation.
had acquired a massive amount of debt during the Revolution
. A severe depression affected the nation during 1784-85. The government was on the verge of going bankrupt and could only take out loans from countries such as France
if they agreed to pay outrageous interest rates. Paper money
was worth close to nothing and hard currency
was difficult to obtain, making it difficult to conduct business transactions. Problems between farmers in debt and collectors in Massachusetts
led to events such as Shays' Rebellion
. The South
was especially affected by the economic problems. Almost 60,000 slaves
were lost during the Revolution, almost 30,000 in South Carolina
and Georgia
alone. To create more financial problems for the South, Great Britain
refused to import Southern goods into the British West Indies
, one of their largest markets. Moreover; Hamilton's idea of paying off the debt would cause to better relations with other countries.
had not completely abandoned the United States. Tensions with the British continued to plague the country even after the treaty had been signed. British troops refused to leave the forts in Detroit, Otsego
, and New York
because the government refused to return land confiscated from Tories during the war. Furthermore, American sailors, no longer under British protection, were being captured and sold into slavery by North African pirates. In 1785, pirates from Algiers
captured an entire crew from an American merchant ship off the coast of Portugal
. Spain
also complicated things after the Revolution due to disputes such as the West Florida Controversy
and Western issues based around the Mississipi River.
After the surrender of the British at Yorktown
, Washington moved over 11,000 troops to the town of Newburgh
in New York
. After waiting several months, the men of the Continental Army
were ready to take up arms against the government for its lack of payment. Officers from the Army came together to take action against the Continental Congress
and in June 1783, they marched to Philadelphia. The soldiers threatened to hold members of the Congress hostage until their wages were paid. The Pennsylvania
militia
refused to assist the members and they were forced to relocate. Eventually, George Washington
came to their aid and encouraged the soldiers not to act violently. He stated, “Do not open the flood gates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood”. Thanks to Washington’s involvement and words to the soldiers, no violence erupted. This rebellion came to be known as the Newburgh Conspiracy
.
were the first constitution of the United States. The Articles created strong state governments and limited the federal government. The national government would be composed of a Congress that would equally represent each state. According to the Articles, only states had the power to tax citizens. Congress was also not able to draft soldiers or regulate trade. The Articles of Confederation also made no provision for a president and also created term limits for representatives. Because there was no pressure to make payments to the federal government
, states did not make contributions and Congress was not able to pay off debts or members of the military. Along with other events of the 1780s, leaders in the country decided that the Articles of Confederation were not a sufficient way to run the government.
and the financial situation was far from stable. Governments had to be formed and leaders had to be selected. New markets had to be found to support those lost during the Rebellion. In his book The American Revolution, Gordon Wood
states that "the Loyalists may have numbered close to half a million, or 20 percent of white Americans" These Tories were a huge loss to the American population and left a void that needed to be filled. However, the American Revolutionary War
had made some positive effects on the nation as well. Despite a short depression during 1784-85, the period of the 1780s was marked with a large growth of the economy. Critics suggest that it was the idea of the Revolution and the thought that it would bring a utopia
n type society to the new country that made it possible for people to believe they were living in a time of crisis. They believe that, though the country was going through a time of change and confusion the times were not as desperate as some citizens believed.
Shays Rebellion proved that the articles of confederation as weak and thats when the U.S. Constitution came into place.
Mintz, S. "The Critical Period: America in the 1780’s." Digital History. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=276. Accessed April 11, 2008.
Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
Wood, Gordon Sican Revolution. New York: Modern Library, 2002.
John Quincy Adams
John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States . He served as an American diplomat, Senator, and Congressional representative. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. Adams was the son of former...
, refers to the 1780s, a time right after the American Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
where the future of the newly formed nation was in the balance. More specifically, the "Critical Period" refers to the period of time following the end of the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
in 1783 to the inauguration of George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
as President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
in 1789. During this time, the newly independent former colonies were beset with a wide array of foreign and domestic problems. Some historians believe it was a bleak, terrible time for Americans, while others believe the term “Critical Period” is exaggerated, and that, while the 1780s were a time of dispute and change, they were also a time of economic growth and political maturation.
Debt and Taxes
As a young nation, the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
had acquired a massive amount of debt during the Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
. A severe depression affected the nation during 1784-85. The government was on the verge of going bankrupt and could only take out loans from countries such as France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
if they agreed to pay outrageous interest rates. Paper money
Paper Money
Paper Money is the second album by the band Montrose. It was released in 1974 and was the band's last album to feature Sammy Hagar as lead vocalist.-History:...
was worth close to nothing and hard currency
Hard currency
Hard currency , in economics, refers to a globally traded currency that is expected to serve as a reliable and stable store of value...
was difficult to obtain, making it difficult to conduct business transactions. Problems between farmers in debt and collectors in Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
led to events such as Shays' Rebellion
Shays' Rebellion
Shays' Rebellion was an armed uprising in central and western Massachusetts from 1786 to 1787. The rebellion is named after Daniel Shays, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War....
. The South
South
South is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.South is one of the four cardinal directions or compass points. It is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to east and west.By convention, the bottom side of a map is south....
was especially affected by the economic problems. Almost 60,000 slaves
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
were lost during the Revolution, almost 30,000 in South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
and Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
alone. To create more financial problems for the South, Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
refused to import Southern goods into the British West Indies
British West Indies
The British West Indies was a term used to describe the islands in and around the Caribbean that were part of the British Empire The term was sometimes used to include British Honduras and British Guiana, even though these territories are not geographically part of the Caribbean...
, one of their largest markets. Moreover; Hamilton's idea of paying off the debt would cause to better relations with other countries.
Foreign Issues
Although the war was over, the BritishUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
had not completely abandoned the United States. Tensions with the British continued to plague the country even after the treaty had been signed. British troops refused to leave the forts in Detroit, Otsego
Otsego
-Places:United States* Otsego County * Otsego Township * Cities and towns:** Otsego, Michigan, mentioned in songs** Otsego, Minnesota** Otsego, New York** Otsego, Wisconsin, a town...
, and New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
because the government refused to return land confiscated from Tories during the war. Furthermore, American sailors, no longer under British protection, were being captured and sold into slavery by North African pirates. In 1785, pirates from Algiers
Algiers
' is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000...
captured an entire crew from an American merchant ship off the coast of Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
. Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
also complicated things after the Revolution due to disputes such as the West Florida Controversy
West Florida Controversy
The West Florida Controversy was a series of border disputes between Spain and the United States over the region known as West Florida. The controversy commenced immediately after Spain received the colonies of West and East Florida from the Kingdom of Great Britain following the American...
and Western issues based around the Mississipi River.
Military Rebellion
Siege of Yorktown
The Siege of Yorktown, Battle of Yorktown, or Surrender of Yorktown in 1781 was a decisive victory by a combined assault of American forces led by General George Washington and French forces led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis...
, Washington moved over 11,000 troops to the town of Newburgh
Newburgh
-Places:Scotland*Newburgh, Fife, a former royal burgh*Newburgh, Aberdeenshire, a village*Newburgh, Borders, a village*Newburgh, Moray, a village*Newburgh, Orkney, a villageEngland*Newburgh, Lancashire, a village*Newburgh, North Yorkshire, a village...
in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. After waiting several months, the men of the Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
were ready to take up arms against the government for its lack of payment. Officers from the Army came together to take action against the Continental Congress
Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution....
and in June 1783, they marched to Philadelphia. The soldiers threatened to hold members of the Congress hostage until their wages were paid. The Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
refused to assist the members and they were forced to relocate. Eventually, George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
came to their aid and encouraged the soldiers not to act violently. He stated, “Do not open the flood gates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood”. Thanks to Washington’s involvement and words to the soldiers, no violence erupted. This rebellion came to be known as the Newburgh Conspiracy
Newburgh conspiracy
The Newburgh Conspiracy was unrest in 1783 among officers of the American Continental Army due to many officers and men of the Army not receiving pay for many years. Commander-in-Chief George Washington stopped any serious talk by appealing successfully to his officers to support the supremacy of...
.
Articles of Confederation
Proposed in 1777 and ratified in 1781, the Articles of ConfederationArticles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 founding states that legally established the United States of America as a confederation of sovereign states and served as its first constitution...
were the first constitution of the United States. The Articles created strong state governments and limited the federal government. The national government would be composed of a Congress that would equally represent each state. According to the Articles, only states had the power to tax citizens. Congress was also not able to draft soldiers or regulate trade. The Articles of Confederation also made no provision for a president and also created term limits for representatives. Because there was no pressure to make payments to the federal government
Federal government
The federal government is the common government of a federation. The structure of federal governments varies from institution to institution. Based on a broad definition of a basic federal political system, there are two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory and...
, states did not make contributions and Congress was not able to pay off debts or members of the military. Along with other events of the 1780s, leaders in the country decided that the Articles of Confederation were not a sufficient way to run the government.
Question of a Crisis
Although many citizens at the time felt that their new nation was on the verge of disaster, there are critics who believe the country was not as desperate as it may have seemed. There were difficult situations that the country was facing after the Revolution. War and reconstruction had greatly affected the economyEconomy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
and the financial situation was far from stable. Governments had to be formed and leaders had to be selected. New markets had to be found to support those lost during the Rebellion. In his book The American Revolution, Gordon Wood
Gordon Wood
Gordon Wood may refer to:* Gordon S. Wood , American historian* Gordon Wood , high school football coach in Texas* Gordon Wood , Australian...
states that "the Loyalists may have numbered close to half a million, or 20 percent of white Americans" These Tories were a huge loss to the American population and left a void that needed to be filled. However, the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
had made some positive effects on the nation as well. Despite a short depression during 1784-85, the period of the 1780s was marked with a large growth of the economy. Critics suggest that it was the idea of the Revolution and the thought that it would bring a utopia
Utopia
Utopia is an ideal community or society possessing a perfect socio-politico-legal system. The word was imported from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean. The term has been used to describe both intentional communities that attempt...
n type society to the new country that made it possible for people to believe they were living in a time of crisis. They believe that, though the country was going through a time of change and confusion the times were not as desperate as some citizens believed.
Shays Rebellion proved that the articles of confederation as weak and thats when the U.S. Constitution came into place.
Resources
Fleming, Thomas. The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival After Yorktown. New York: Collins, 2007.Mintz, S. "The Critical Period: America in the 1780’s." Digital History. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=276. Accessed April 11, 2008.
Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
Wood, Gordon Sican Revolution. New York: Modern Library, 2002.