Ba'athist Iraq
Encyclopedia
The History of Iraq, referred to as Ba'athist Iraq, covers the period of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
's rule over Iraq. Ba'athist rule in Iraq first occurred briefly in 1963 under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
until overthrown that same year. Ba'athism was restored to power five years later after al-Bakr and the Ba'ath Party overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif
. Ba'athism became entrenched in Iraq's government as a single-party system committed to pan-Arab
unification, Iraqi nationalism
, state socialism
, secularism
and most importantly, ba'athism
. Al-Bakr resigned as President in 1979 and was replaced by Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti
. The Ba'athist regime was overthrown in 2003 after the invasion of Iraq by a multinational coalition, and formally dissolved by the Coalition Provisional Authority
that year.
until 1981. From 1980 to 1988, during the Iran-Iraq War
, Iraq occupied and annexed portions of Iran
. From 1990 to 1991, Iraq occupied and annexed Kuwait
. The annexation of Kuwait was not recognized and was declared an illegal violation of Kuwait's sovereignty by the United Nations
. A UN-authorized international military coalition forced Iraqi military forces to retreat from Kuwait during the Gulf War
and subsequently Kuwait's sovereignty was restored.
The Ba'athist era was a period of official secularization in Iraq. The government included people from multiple religious affiliations including Sunni Muslims, Shiite Muslims, and Christians
. However, the period was marked, especially under Saddam Hussein (after 1991), with sectarian religious and ethnic strife between the dominant Sunni Muslim minority Arabs versus the Shiite Muslim majority Arabs and minority Kurds
. The government promoted women's rights including allowing women to access education and serve in the armed forces. The government sought the restoration of Iraqi cultural heritage, such as rebuilding replicas of sections of the ancient city of Babylon
. Under Saddam Hussein, glorification of Hussein and the Ba'athist government was common in state-sponsored artwork. The Ba'ath Party dominated the political life of the country, though a National Progressive Front
was proclaimed in 1974 to allow for the mostly nominal participation of non-Ba'athist figures and parties in Iraqi politics.
During the Gulf War, Saddam Hussein sought to gain support from the Muslim religious community for the government and inscribed the Takbir
to the flag, and coat of arms, and motto of Iraq.
s, over 800 aircraft in the Iraqi Air Force
, and a small navy, thanks to funding from the surrounding Persian Gulf states and billions in loans and funding given or secured by the United States to support Iraq's war with Iran. Losses during the Gulf War
from the United States-led coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft.
, "a relatively civil affair". The coup started in the early hours of 17 July, when a number of military units and civilian Ba'athists seized several key government and military buildings; these included amongst others the Ministry of Defence
, the electricity station, radio stations, all the city's bridges and "a number of military bases". All telephone lines were cut at 3 A.M., and by this time several tanks had been given the command to halt in front of the Presidential Palace. Abdul Rahman Arif
, the then-President of Iraq
, first knew of the coup when jubilant members of the Republican Guard started shooting up in the air in "a premature triumph". Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
, the leader of the operation, told Arif about his situation through military communication hardware at the base of operations. Arif asked for more time; he used this time to contact other military units to seek support. As he soon found out, the odds were against him, and surrendered. Arif telephoned al-Bakr and told him that he was willing to resign, to show his gratitude, al-Bakr guaranteed his safety. al-Bakr's deputies, Hardan al-Tikriti
and Saleh Omar al-Ali, were ordered to give Arif this message in person. Arif was quickly sent on the first plane to London, UK along with wife and son. Later that morning, a ba'athist broadcast announced that a new government had been established. The coup was carried out with such ease that not even one single life was lost during the coup.
The coup succeeded because of contributions made by the military; the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
was not strong enough to take power by itself. The Ba'ath Party managed to make a deal with with Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif
, the deputy head of military intelligence, and Ibrahim Daud, the head of the Republican Guard. Both Naif and Daud knew the Arif's government chance of long-time survival looked bleak, but also knew that the ba'athist needed them if the coup was to be successful. Naif demanded to be given the post of Prime Minister after the coup as a reward, and a symbol for his strength, for his participation in the coup. Daud was also "rewarded" with a post; he became Minister of Defence. However, not everything was going according to Naif's and Daud's plan, al-Bakr had told the Ba'ath leadership in a secret meeting that the two would be either liquidated "during, or after, the revolution". al-Bakr, as the leader of the coup's military operation, retained his position as Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party, and was elected to the posts of President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council
. In the immediate aftermath of the coup, a power struggle developed between al-Bakr and Naif. In all practicality, Naif should have had the upper hand; he was a respected officer and was supported by the common soldier. al-Bakr would, however, prove to be a more cunning, persuading and more organised then Naif, Daud and their supporters. One of al-Bakr's first decisions in office was to appoint over 100 new officers to the Republican Guard. Saddam Hussein
worked, in the meantime, to establish the party's security and intelligence organisation to combat the enemies. On 29 July, Daud left for a tour to Jordan to inspect the Iraqi troops located their following the Six Day War with Israel. The following day, on 30 July, Naif was invited to eat lunch at the Presidential Palace with al-Bakr. During their lunch, Hussein bursted into the room with three accomplishes and threatened Naif with death. Naif responded by crying out; "I have four children". Hussein ordered Naif to leave Iraq immediatley if he wanted to live, a order in which Naif complied. Naif was exiled to Morocco
, and later assasinated on the orders of Hussein in 1978 in London, after an earlier failed assasination attempt in 1973. Daud shared a similar fate, and was exiled to Saudi Arabia
. The ba'athist were by no means ensured of victory, if any of Naif's supporters had known of the operation against him, Baghdad could have become the centre, in the words of historian Con Coughlin, "of an ugly bloodbath".
(ICP) was skeptical of the new ba'athist government, as many of it's members remembered the anti-communist campaign launched against them by the ba'athist government of 1963. After taking power, al-Bakr offered the ICP cabinet positions in the new government, the ICP rejected this offer. al-Bakr responded by initiated a systematic campaign against the ICP and communist sympathisers. However, as historian Charles Tripp
notes in his A History of Iraq, the campaign started "a curious game whereby the government alternately persecuted and courted the party until 1972–1973, when the ICP was offered, and accepted, membership in the National Progressive Front
. (NPF). The reason for this "curious game" was the Ba'ath Party's belief that the ICP was more dangerous then it really was. When Aziz al-Haji broke away from the ICP, and established the Iraqi Communist Party (Central Command) and initated a "popular revolutionary war" against the regime, it was dully crushed. By April 1969 the "popular revolutionary" uprising had been crushed, and al-Haji recanted his believes publicly. Another reason for this anti-communist policy was that many Ba'ath Party openly sympathised with communists or other socialist forces. However, at this stage, neither al-Bakr nor Hussein had enough support within the party to initiate a policy unpopular within it; at the Seventh Regional Congress of the Ba'ath Party both al-Bakr and other leading ba'athist expressed their support for "radical socialism
".
By the mid-to-late 1970s Hussein's power within the Ba'ath Party and the government, and became the de facto
leader of the country, even if al-Bakr still was both President, Ba'ath Party leader and Revolutionary Command Council chairman. In 1977, following a wave of shiites protest against the government, al-Bakr relinquished his control over the Ministry of Defence
; Adnan Khairallah Tulfah, Hussein's brother-in-law, was appointed defence minister. The appointment underlined the clannish character of the Ba'ath Party and government. In contrast to Hussein's fortunes, those of al-Bakr's were on the wane. Rumours of al-Bakr bad health started to circulate the country. By the end of 1977, al-Bakr had little de facto control over the country through his office as president. The reason why Hussein became president in 1977, but 1979, can be explained by Hussein's own insecurity. Before making himself de jure head of state, Hussein initiated an anti-communist campaign; the ICP at this had no real power, most of it's leading officials had left the country, or been imprisoned or killed by the regime. However, the campaign was not centered on the ICP, but fellow ba'athists who did not support Hussein. Hussein had initiated a similar campaign in 1978, that time to check were the loyalties of certain left-wingers were; ba'athism
or socialism. Following the campaign, entered the Arab world stage for the first time under the banner of nasserism
and Gamal Abdel Nasser
by criticising the Camp David agreement between Anwar Sadat
of Egypt and the state of Israel.
In response to the Islamic Revolution
in Iran
several Iraqi shi'ites revolted against what they saw as a sunni-led government. This revolt led to the collapse of the Ba'ath Party in certain areas of the country. It was in this situation that Hussein took over the office of President, Ba'ath Party leader and Revolutionary Command Council chairman. Izzat Ibrahim al-Duri was promoted to the office of vice-chairman, synonymous with the post of vice-president in the west. However, the shia revolt was not the only reason to take over as formal leader, their were rumours within top echelons of power that al-Bakr, with the assistance of those Iraqi ba'athists who opposed Hussein, was planning to designate Hafez al-Assad
as his successor. Immediatley after seizing power, over 60 members of the Ba'ath Party and government leadership had been charged with fomenting an anti-Iraqi ba'athist plot in collaboration with al-Assad and the Damascus-based Ba'ath Party.
was created and centered around Hussein. He was represented as the father of the nation
and all it's people. National institutions, such as the National Assembly of Iraq
, to strengthen this image of him. The Ba'ath Party also contributed to the cult of personality; the Ba'ath Party was by 1979 a nationwide organisation, and became a propaganda center for pro-Hussein literature. This propaganda campaign did, at least in the beginning, create a common sense of nationhood for many Iraqis. The shi'ites protests were not quelled by these propaganda campaigns, and the establishment of a Islamic Republic
in Iran, influenced many shi'ites to stand up against the sunni dominated government. At first, relations between Iran and Iraq were fairly good, but ideological difference could not remain concealed forever. The new Iranian leadership were muslim fundamentalists, while the Iraqi ba'athists were secular by nature. Another major obstacle for relations was the Iraqi governments continued repression and discrimination of shi'ites. At the beginning of 1980 several border clashes took place between the two countries. The Iraqi regime considered the newly-established Iran to be "weak"; the country was in a state of continued civil unrest, and the Iranian leaders had purged thousands of officers and soldiers because of their political views.
The Iran–Iraq War was in theory, going to be a quick Iraqi victory. Hussein's plans was to strengthen Iraq's position in both the Persian Gulf
and at the Arab world stage. A quick victory would restore Iraq's control over the whole of the Shatt al-Arab, an area which Iraq had lost to Iran in 1975. Hussein abrogated the treaty of 1975 in a meeting of the National Assembly on 17 September 1980. This abrogation was followed shortly after by several pre-emptive strikes on Iran and by the invasion of Iran. Hussein believed that the Iranian regime would have "to disengage in order to survive". Not only was this view faulty, but it overestimated the strength of the Iraqi military and the Iranian regime saw the invasion as a test of the revolution itself and all it's achievements. The short way which Hussein planned for some time, proved just after a couple of weeks, proved to be something very different in reality. Hussein, "in a rare moment of frankness, [...] admitted as much". While the war not going as planned, the regime reasserted its view on the situation, and claimed that winning the war was a matter of "national honour". The majority of the ba'athist leadership, and Hussein himself, still believed that Iran would collapse under the weight of pure Iraqi force.
In 1982 Iran counter-attacked and was successful in driving the Iraqis back into Iraq. That year alone, an estimated 40,000 Iraqis had been taken prisoners. The defeats of 1982 were a blow to both Hussein and the ba'ath regime. With the economic situation worsening because of falling oil prices, and the rising military budget, the Iraqi standard of living worsened. The Revolutionary Command Council
and the Ba'ath Military Command, Regional Command and National Command meet in one extraordinary session in 1982, with Hussein absent, to discuss the possibilties of a ceasefire
proposal to the Iranian government. The ceasefire proposal made at the meeting was rejected by the Iranian regime. If the proposal had been accepted, Hussein would have not have survived politically, the proposal was supported by all the members of the Regional Command, National Command and the Revolutionary Command Council. It was at this time that rumours started circulating that Hussein would step down as president to make place for al-Bakr, the former president. As events showed, this did not happen, and al-Bakr died in 1982 under mysterious circumstances. Major losses of life in the conflict, nearly led to a military mutinity led by Maher Abdul Rashid, the father-in-law of Saddam's second son. Rashid started to criticise publicy, and claimed that loss of life could have been averted if it wasn't for Hussein's meddling into military affairs. This confrontation with the military led to greater independence of military planning from ba'athist leadership interference. Shortly after the Iraqi Air Force
once again established air superiority. These changes in organisation led to Hussein focusing most of his energy on Iraqi Kurdistan
, which had revolted. Hussein appointed his cousin Ali Hasan al-Majid as military chief in Kurdistan. al-Majid initiated the al-Anfal campaign
; chemical weapons were used against civilians. In April 1988, after a series of Iraqi military victories, a ceasefire was agreed upon between Iraq and Iran; the war is commonly considered a Status quo ante bellum
.
, basing the attack on the claim that Kuwait was illegally slant-drilling its oil wells into Iraqi territory. Upon occupying Kuwait, Hussein declared that Kuwait was annexed to Iraq. The United Nations denounced the occupation as illegal and repeatedly ordered Iraq to withdraw its military forces from Kuwait and recognize Kuwait's sovereignty. Sanctions were imposed on Iraq by the UN to pressure Iraq to withdraw. In 1991, The UN Security Council approved international military action to restore Kuwait's sovereignty. The coalition led by the United States attacked and defeated Iraqi forces in Kuwait, inflicting serious casualties on Iraq. Iraq in response launched tactical ballistic missile
attacks against Israel
and Saudi Arabia
, both US' Middle Eastern allies. Retreating Iraqi forces sabotaged Kuwaiti oil wells causing massive fires across Kuwait's oil fields. Coalition forces inflicted serious damage on both the state and civilian infrastructure of Iraq.
Shortly after the end of the Gulf War in 1991, members of Iraq's Shiite community rebelled against the Iraqi government. Iraqi government forces forcefully crushed the revolt.
Upon being militarily defeated in the Gulf War, Hussein submitted to allow UN weapons inspection, disarmament of Weapons of mass destruction
, and no-fly-zones over northern and southern areas of Iraq.
In 1998 Iraq accused UN weapons inspections of being infiltrated by spies and forced UN weapon inspectors to leave Iraq. In 2002, the UN Security Council issued Resolution 1441
, ordering Iraq to immediately restore UN weapons inspections and commit to demonstrate its commitment to disarmament of weapons of mass destruction. Resolution 1441 was presented to Iraq as a "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" that had been set out in several previous resolutions.http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/11/08/resolution.text/ Iraq permitted UN weapon inspectors led by Hans Blix
, head of United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission
(UNMOVIC), to investigate sites suspected of potentially having weapons or weapon material.
The United States, United Kingdom, and a coalition of other countries that referred to themselves as the "Coalition of the Willing
" declared war on Iraq, claiming that Resolution 1441 was not upheld by Iraq and that under Resolution 1441, the coalition was authorized to force Iraq to comply with its obligations. United States President George W. Bush
stated that such compliance could only come by the removal of Hussein and the Ba'ath Party
from power and the establishment of a new government that would comply with the responsibilities of the United Nations.
Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region is a ba'athist regional organisation founded in 1951 by Fuad al-Rikabi...
's rule over Iraq. Ba'athist rule in Iraq first occurred briefly in 1963 under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , was the fourth President of Iraq from 1968 to 1979.-Military career:...
until overthrown that same year. Ba'athism was restored to power five years later after al-Bakr and the Ba'ath Party overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif
Abdul Rahman Arif
Hajj Abdul Rahman Mohammed Arif Aljumaily was president of Iraq from April 16, 1966 to July 17, 1968.-Biography:...
. Ba'athism became entrenched in Iraq's government as a single-party system committed to pan-Arab
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism is an ideology espousing the unification--or, sometimes, close cooperation and solidarity against perceived enemies of the Arabs--of the countries of the Arab world, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs...
unification, Iraqi nationalism
Iraqi nationalism
Iraqi nationalism refers to a nationalism based on Iraqi identity. Iraqi nationalism in history was influential in Iraq's movement to independence from Ottoman and British occupation. Iraqi nationalism was an important aspect in the 1920 Revolution against British occupation, and the 1958...
, state socialism
State socialism
State socialism is an economic system with limited socialist characteristics, such as public ownership of major industries, remedial measures to benefit the working class, and a gradual process of developing socialism through government policy...
, secularism
Secularism
Secularism is the principle of separation between government institutions and the persons mandated to represent the State from religious institutions and religious dignitaries...
and most importantly, ba'athism
Ba'athism
Ba'athism is an Arab nationalist ideology that promotes the development and creation of an Arab nation through the leadership of a vanguard party over a progressive revolutionary state. The ideology is officially based on the theories of Zaki al-Arsuzi , Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar...
. Al-Bakr resigned as President in 1979 and was replaced by Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003...
. The Ba'athist regime was overthrown in 2003 after the invasion of Iraq by a multinational coalition, and formally dissolved by the Coalition Provisional Authority
Coalition Provisional Authority
The Coalition Provisional Authority was established as a transitional government following the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies, members of the Multi-National Force – Iraq which was formed to oust the government of Saddam Hussein in 2003...
that year.
Territory
During the Ba'athist era, Iraq officially maintained most of the territory currently part of Iraq. A border dispute existed with Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
until 1981. From 1980 to 1988, during the Iran-Iraq War
Iran-Iraq War
The Iran–Iraq War was an armed conflict between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran, lasting from September 1980 to August 1988, making it the longest conventional war of the twentieth century...
, Iraq occupied and annexed portions of Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
. From 1990 to 1991, Iraq occupied and annexed Kuwait
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
. The annexation of Kuwait was not recognized and was declared an illegal violation of Kuwait's sovereignty by the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
. A UN-authorized international military coalition forced Iraqi military forces to retreat from Kuwait during the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
and subsequently Kuwait's sovereignty was restored.
Culture and Society
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. However, the period was marked, especially under Saddam Hussein (after 1991), with sectarian religious and ethnic strife between the dominant Sunni Muslim minority Arabs versus the Shiite Muslim majority Arabs and minority Kurds
Kurdish people
The Kurdish people, or Kurds , are an Iranian people native to the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a region known as Kurdistan, which includes adjacent parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey...
. The government promoted women's rights including allowing women to access education and serve in the armed forces. The government sought the restoration of Iraqi cultural heritage, such as rebuilding replicas of sections of the ancient city of Babylon
Babylon
Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
. Under Saddam Hussein, glorification of Hussein and the Ba'athist government was common in state-sponsored artwork. The Ba'ath Party dominated the political life of the country, though a National Progressive Front
National Progressive Front (Iraq)
The National Progressive Front was an Iraqi Popular Front announced on July 16, 1973 and constituted in 1974, ostensibly formed within the framework of a "joint action programme" to establish a coalition between the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, the Iraqi Communist Party, the Kurdistan...
was proclaimed in 1974 to allow for the mostly nominal participation of non-Ba'athist figures and parties in Iraqi politics.
During the Gulf War, Saddam Hussein sought to gain support from the Muslim religious community for the government and inscribed the Takbir
Takbir
The Takbīr or Tekbir is the Arabic term for the phrase ' . It is usually translated "God is [the] Greatest," or "God is Great". It is a common Islamic Arabic expression...
to the flag, and coat of arms, and motto of Iraq.
Military
By the end of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraq fielded the world's 4th largest military, with more than 70 army divisionDivision (military)
A division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions typically make up a corps...
s, over 800 aircraft in the Iraqi Air Force
Iraqi Air Force
The Iraqi Air Force or IQAF is the military branch in Iraq responsible for the policing of international borders, surveillance of national assets and aerial operations...
, and a small navy, thanks to funding from the surrounding Persian Gulf states and billions in loans and funding given or secured by the United States to support Iraq's war with Iran. Losses during the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
from the United States-led coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft.
The coup of 1968
In contrast to previous coup d'etats in Iraq's history, the 1968 coup was, according to Con CoughlinCon Coughlin
Con Coughlin is a British journalist and author, currently an editor for the Daily Telegraph.-Early years:He was born in London, England, the son of the Daily Telegraph crime correspondent C.A. Coughlin. The eldest of four children he grew up in Upminster, Essex...
, "a relatively civil affair". The coup started in the early hours of 17 July, when a number of military units and civilian Ba'athists seized several key government and military buildings; these included amongst others the Ministry of Defence
Ministry of Defence (Iraq)
The Ministry of Defence is the Iraq government agency responsible for Defence of Iraq. It is also involved with internal security.- Authority :...
, the electricity station, radio stations, all the city's bridges and "a number of military bases". All telephone lines were cut at 3 A.M., and by this time several tanks had been given the command to halt in front of the Presidential Palace. Abdul Rahman Arif
Abdul Rahman Arif
Hajj Abdul Rahman Mohammed Arif Aljumaily was president of Iraq from April 16, 1966 to July 17, 1968.-Biography:...
, the then-President of Iraq
President of Iraq
The President of Iraq is the head of state of Iraq and "safeguards the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, the security of its territories in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution." The President is elected by the Council of...
, first knew of the coup when jubilant members of the Republican Guard started shooting up in the air in "a premature triumph". Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr
General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , was the fourth President of Iraq from 1968 to 1979.-Military career:...
, the leader of the operation, told Arif about his situation through military communication hardware at the base of operations. Arif asked for more time; he used this time to contact other military units to seek support. As he soon found out, the odds were against him, and surrendered. Arif telephoned al-Bakr and told him that he was willing to resign, to show his gratitude, al-Bakr guaranteed his safety. al-Bakr's deputies, Hardan al-Tikriti
Hardan al-Tikriti
Hardan ’Abdul Ghaffar al-Tikriti was a senior Iraqi Air Force commander, Iraqi politician and ambassador who was assassinated on the orders of Saddam Hussein, the then vice chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council....
and Saleh Omar al-Ali, were ordered to give Arif this message in person. Arif was quickly sent on the first plane to London, UK along with wife and son. Later that morning, a ba'athist broadcast announced that a new government had been established. The coup was carried out with such ease that not even one single life was lost during the coup.
The coup succeeded because of contributions made by the military; the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region is a ba'athist regional organisation founded in 1951 by Fuad al-Rikabi...
was not strong enough to take power by itself. The Ba'ath Party managed to make a deal with with Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif
Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif
Abd ar-Razzaq Said al-Naif was Prime Minister of Iraq in 1968. He was assassinated on July 9, 1978, in London. His gunman was quickly captured and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1979; Naif was reportedly killed on order of Saddam Hussein.-References:...
, the deputy head of military intelligence, and Ibrahim Daud, the head of the Republican Guard. Both Naif and Daud knew the Arif's government chance of long-time survival looked bleak, but also knew that the ba'athist needed them if the coup was to be successful. Naif demanded to be given the post of Prime Minister after the coup as a reward, and a symbol for his strength, for his participation in the coup. Daud was also "rewarded" with a post; he became Minister of Defence. However, not everything was going according to Naif's and Daud's plan, al-Bakr had told the Ba'ath leadership in a secret meeting that the two would be either liquidated "during, or after, the revolution". al-Bakr, as the leader of the coup's military operation, retained his position as Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party, and was elected to the posts of President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council
Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council
The Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council was established after the military coup in 1968, and was the ultimate decision making body in Iraq before the 2003 American-led invasion. It exercised both executive and legislative authority in the country, with the Chairman and Vice Chairman chosen by a...
. In the immediate aftermath of the coup, a power struggle developed between al-Bakr and Naif. In all practicality, Naif should have had the upper hand; he was a respected officer and was supported by the common soldier. al-Bakr would, however, prove to be a more cunning, persuading and more organised then Naif, Daud and their supporters. One of al-Bakr's first decisions in office was to appoint over 100 new officers to the Republican Guard. Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003...
worked, in the meantime, to establish the party's security and intelligence organisation to combat the enemies. On 29 July, Daud left for a tour to Jordan to inspect the Iraqi troops located their following the Six Day War with Israel. The following day, on 30 July, Naif was invited to eat lunch at the Presidential Palace with al-Bakr. During their lunch, Hussein bursted into the room with three accomplishes and threatened Naif with death. Naif responded by crying out; "I have four children". Hussein ordered Naif to leave Iraq immediatley if he wanted to live, a order in which Naif complied. Naif was exiled to Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
, and later assasinated on the orders of Hussein in 1978 in London, after an earlier failed assasination attempt in 1973. Daud shared a similar fate, and was exiled to Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
. The ba'athist were by no means ensured of victory, if any of Naif's supporters had known of the operation against him, Baghdad could have become the centre, in the words of historian Con Coughlin, "of an ugly bloodbath".
Early years and Hussein's rise to power (1968–1979)
al-Bakr managed to strengthen his position within the party with the help of Hussein's newly-established party security apparatus and the intelligence services. Most of 1968 was used to repress none-ba'athist thoughts and groups, for instance, a campaign against nasserist and communist was initiated under the command of Hussein. Several spy plots were created by the government, spies that were "caught" were accused of being a part of a zionist plot agains the state. The Iraqi Communist PartyIraqi Communist Party
Since its foundation in 1934, the Iraqi Communist Party has dominated the left in Iraqi politics. It played a fundamental role in shaping the political history of Iraq between its foundation and the 1970s. The Party was involved in many of the most important national uprisings and demonstrations...
(ICP) was skeptical of the new ba'athist government, as many of it's members remembered the anti-communist campaign launched against them by the ba'athist government of 1963. After taking power, al-Bakr offered the ICP cabinet positions in the new government, the ICP rejected this offer. al-Bakr responded by initiated a systematic campaign against the ICP and communist sympathisers. However, as historian Charles Tripp
Charles R. H. Tripp
Professor Charles R. H. Tripp, Ph.D., is an academic and author specializing in the politics and history of the Near and Middle East.Tripp's main areas of research include the study of state and society in the Middle East, especially Iraq, and Islamic political thought., he lectures on government...
notes in his A History of Iraq, the campaign started "a curious game whereby the government alternately persecuted and courted the party until 1972–1973, when the ICP was offered, and accepted, membership in the National Progressive Front
National Progressive Front (Iraq)
The National Progressive Front was an Iraqi Popular Front announced on July 16, 1973 and constituted in 1974, ostensibly formed within the framework of a "joint action programme" to establish a coalition between the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, the Iraqi Communist Party, the Kurdistan...
. (NPF). The reason for this "curious game" was the Ba'ath Party's belief that the ICP was more dangerous then it really was. When Aziz al-Haji broke away from the ICP, and established the Iraqi Communist Party (Central Command) and initated a "popular revolutionary war" against the regime, it was dully crushed. By April 1969 the "popular revolutionary" uprising had been crushed, and al-Haji recanted his believes publicly. Another reason for this anti-communist policy was that many Ba'ath Party openly sympathised with communists or other socialist forces. However, at this stage, neither al-Bakr nor Hussein had enough support within the party to initiate a policy unpopular within it; at the Seventh Regional Congress of the Ba'ath Party both al-Bakr and other leading ba'athist expressed their support for "radical socialism
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
".
By the mid-to-late 1970s Hussein's power within the Ba'ath Party and the government, and became the de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
leader of the country, even if al-Bakr still was both President, Ba'ath Party leader and Revolutionary Command Council chairman. In 1977, following a wave of shiites protest against the government, al-Bakr relinquished his control over the Ministry of Defence
Ministry of Defence (Iraq)
The Ministry of Defence is the Iraq government agency responsible for Defence of Iraq. It is also involved with internal security.- Authority :...
; Adnan Khairallah Tulfah, Hussein's brother-in-law, was appointed defence minister. The appointment underlined the clannish character of the Ba'ath Party and government. In contrast to Hussein's fortunes, those of al-Bakr's were on the wane. Rumours of al-Bakr bad health started to circulate the country. By the end of 1977, al-Bakr had little de facto control over the country through his office as president. The reason why Hussein became president in 1977, but 1979, can be explained by Hussein's own insecurity. Before making himself de jure head of state, Hussein initiated an anti-communist campaign; the ICP at this had no real power, most of it's leading officials had left the country, or been imprisoned or killed by the regime. However, the campaign was not centered on the ICP, but fellow ba'athists who did not support Hussein. Hussein had initiated a similar campaign in 1978, that time to check were the loyalties of certain left-wingers were; ba'athism
Ba'athism
Ba'athism is an Arab nationalist ideology that promotes the development and creation of an Arab nation through the leadership of a vanguard party over a progressive revolutionary state. The ideology is officially based on the theories of Zaki al-Arsuzi , Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar...
or socialism. Following the campaign, entered the Arab world stage for the first time under the banner of nasserism
Nasserism
Nasserism is an Arab nationalist political ideology based on the thinking of the former Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. It was a major influence on pan-Arab politics in the 1950s and 1960s, and continues to have significant resonance throughout the Arab World to this day. It also...
and Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death. A colonel in the Egyptian army, Nasser led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 along with Muhammad Naguib, the first president, which overthrew the monarchy of Egypt and Sudan, and heralded a new period of...
by criticising the Camp David agreement between Anwar Sadat
Anwar Sadat
Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat was the third President of Egypt, serving from 15 October 1970 until his assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981...
of Egypt and the state of Israel.
In response to the Islamic Revolution
Iranian Revolution
The Iranian Revolution refers to events involving the overthrow of Iran's monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and its replacement with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the...
in Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
several Iraqi shi'ites revolted against what they saw as a sunni-led government. This revolt led to the collapse of the Ba'ath Party in certain areas of the country. It was in this situation that Hussein took over the office of President, Ba'ath Party leader and Revolutionary Command Council chairman. Izzat Ibrahim al-Duri was promoted to the office of vice-chairman, synonymous with the post of vice-president in the west. However, the shia revolt was not the only reason to take over as formal leader, their were rumours within top echelons of power that al-Bakr, with the assistance of those Iraqi ba'athists who opposed Hussein, was planning to designate Hafez al-Assad
Hafez al-Assad
Hafez ibn 'Ali ibn Sulayman al-Assad or more commonly Hafez al-Assad was the President of Syria for three decades. Assad's rule consolidated the power of the central government after decades of coups and counter-coups, such as Operation Wappen in 1957 conducted by the Eisenhower administration and...
as his successor. Immediatley after seizing power, over 60 members of the Ba'ath Party and government leadership had been charged with fomenting an anti-Iraqi ba'athist plot in collaboration with al-Assad and the Damascus-based Ba'ath Party.
Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)
Once he assumed the presidency, a cult of personalityCult of personality
A cult of personality arises when an individual uses mass media, propaganda, or other methods, to create an idealized and heroic public image, often through unquestioning flattery and praise. Cults of personality are usually associated with dictatorships...
was created and centered around Hussein. He was represented as the father of the nation
Father of the Nation
Father of the Nation is an honorific title given to a man considered the driving force behind the establishment of their country, state or nation...
and all it's people. National institutions, such as the National Assembly of Iraq
National Assembly of Iraq
The Council of Representatives of Iraq is the main elected body of representatives in Iraq. It is currently composed of 325 seats and meets in Baghdad inside the International Zone . It is governed by bylaws that can be found -The monarchy:...
, to strengthen this image of him. The Ba'ath Party also contributed to the cult of personality; the Ba'ath Party was by 1979 a nationwide organisation, and became a propaganda center for pro-Hussein literature. This propaganda campaign did, at least in the beginning, create a common sense of nationhood for many Iraqis. The shi'ites protests were not quelled by these propaganda campaigns, and the establishment of a Islamic Republic
Islamic republic
Islamic republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Mauritania. Pakistan adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian...
in Iran, influenced many shi'ites to stand up against the sunni dominated government. At first, relations between Iran and Iraq were fairly good, but ideological difference could not remain concealed forever. The new Iranian leadership were muslim fundamentalists, while the Iraqi ba'athists were secular by nature. Another major obstacle for relations was the Iraqi governments continued repression and discrimination of shi'ites. At the beginning of 1980 several border clashes took place between the two countries. The Iraqi regime considered the newly-established Iran to be "weak"; the country was in a state of continued civil unrest, and the Iranian leaders had purged thousands of officers and soldiers because of their political views.
The Iran–Iraq War was in theory, going to be a quick Iraqi victory. Hussein's plans was to strengthen Iraq's position in both the Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...
and at the Arab world stage. A quick victory would restore Iraq's control over the whole of the Shatt al-Arab, an area which Iraq had lost to Iran in 1975. Hussein abrogated the treaty of 1975 in a meeting of the National Assembly on 17 September 1980. This abrogation was followed shortly after by several pre-emptive strikes on Iran and by the invasion of Iran. Hussein believed that the Iranian regime would have "to disengage in order to survive". Not only was this view faulty, but it overestimated the strength of the Iraqi military and the Iranian regime saw the invasion as a test of the revolution itself and all it's achievements. The short way which Hussein planned for some time, proved just after a couple of weeks, proved to be something very different in reality. Hussein, "in a rare moment of frankness, [...] admitted as much". While the war not going as planned, the regime reasserted its view on the situation, and claimed that winning the war was a matter of "national honour". The majority of the ba'athist leadership, and Hussein himself, still believed that Iran would collapse under the weight of pure Iraqi force.
In 1982 Iran counter-attacked and was successful in driving the Iraqis back into Iraq. That year alone, an estimated 40,000 Iraqis had been taken prisoners. The defeats of 1982 were a blow to both Hussein and the ba'ath regime. With the economic situation worsening because of falling oil prices, and the rising military budget, the Iraqi standard of living worsened. The Revolutionary Command Council
Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council
The Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council was established after the military coup in 1968, and was the ultimate decision making body in Iraq before the 2003 American-led invasion. It exercised both executive and legislative authority in the country, with the Chairman and Vice Chairman chosen by a...
and the Ba'ath Military Command, Regional Command and National Command meet in one extraordinary session in 1982, with Hussein absent, to discuss the possibilties of a ceasefire
Ceasefire
A ceasefire is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a formal treaty, but they have also been called as part of an informal understanding between opposing forces...
proposal to the Iranian government. The ceasefire proposal made at the meeting was rejected by the Iranian regime. If the proposal had been accepted, Hussein would have not have survived politically, the proposal was supported by all the members of the Regional Command, National Command and the Revolutionary Command Council. It was at this time that rumours started circulating that Hussein would step down as president to make place for al-Bakr, the former president. As events showed, this did not happen, and al-Bakr died in 1982 under mysterious circumstances. Major losses of life in the conflict, nearly led to a military mutinity led by Maher Abdul Rashid, the father-in-law of Saddam's second son. Rashid started to criticise publicy, and claimed that loss of life could have been averted if it wasn't for Hussein's meddling into military affairs. This confrontation with the military led to greater independence of military planning from ba'athist leadership interference. Shortly after the Iraqi Air Force
Iraqi Air Force
The Iraqi Air Force or IQAF is the military branch in Iraq responsible for the policing of international borders, surveillance of national assets and aerial operations...
once again established air superiority. These changes in organisation led to Hussein focusing most of his energy on Iraqi Kurdistan
Iraqi Kurdistan
Iraqi Kurdistan or Kurdistan Region is an autonomous region of Iraq. It borders Iran to the east, Turkey to the north, Syria to the west and the rest of Iraq to the south. The regional capital is Arbil, known in Kurdish as Hewlêr...
, which had revolted. Hussein appointed his cousin Ali Hasan al-Majid as military chief in Kurdistan. al-Majid initiated the al-Anfal campaign
Al-Anfal Campaign
The al-Anfal Campaign , also known as Operation Anfal or simply Anfal, was a genocidal campaign against the Kurdish people in Northern Iraq, led by the Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein and headed by Ali Hassan al-Majid in the final stages of Iran-Iraq War...
; chemical weapons were used against civilians. In April 1988, after a series of Iraqi military victories, a ceasefire was agreed upon between Iraq and Iran; the war is commonly considered a Status quo ante bellum
Status quo ante bellum
The term status quo ante bellum is Latin, meaning literally "the state in which things were before the war".The term was originally used in treaties to refer to the withdrawal of enemy troops and the restoration of prewar leadership. When used as such, it means that no side gains or loses...
.
The Gulf War and the troubled 1990s (1988–1999)
In August 1990, Hussein declared war on KuwaitKuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
, basing the attack on the claim that Kuwait was illegally slant-drilling its oil wells into Iraqi territory. Upon occupying Kuwait, Hussein declared that Kuwait was annexed to Iraq. The United Nations denounced the occupation as illegal and repeatedly ordered Iraq to withdraw its military forces from Kuwait and recognize Kuwait's sovereignty. Sanctions were imposed on Iraq by the UN to pressure Iraq to withdraw. In 1991, The UN Security Council approved international military action to restore Kuwait's sovereignty. The coalition led by the United States attacked and defeated Iraqi forces in Kuwait, inflicting serious casualties on Iraq. Iraq in response launched tactical ballistic missile
Tactical ballistic missile
A tactical ballistic missile is a ballistic missile designed for short-range battlefield use. Typically, range is less than . Tactical ballistic missiles are usually mobile to ensure survivability and quick deployment, as well as carrying a variety of warheads to target enemy facilities, assembly...
attacks against Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
and Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
, both US' Middle Eastern allies. Retreating Iraqi forces sabotaged Kuwaiti oil wells causing massive fires across Kuwait's oil fields. Coalition forces inflicted serious damage on both the state and civilian infrastructure of Iraq.
Shortly after the end of the Gulf War in 1991, members of Iraq's Shiite community rebelled against the Iraqi government. Iraqi government forces forcefully crushed the revolt.
Upon being militarily defeated in the Gulf War, Hussein submitted to allow UN weapons inspection, disarmament of Weapons of mass destruction
Weapons of mass destruction
A weapon of mass destruction is a weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans and/or cause great damage to man-made structures , natural structures , or the biosphere in general...
, and no-fly-zones over northern and southern areas of Iraq.
In 1998 Iraq accused UN weapons inspections of being infiltrated by spies and forced UN weapon inspectors to leave Iraq. In 2002, the UN Security Council issued Resolution 1441
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1441
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1441 is a United Nations Security Council resolution adopted unanimously by the United Nations Security Council on November 8, 2002, offering Iraq under Saddam Hussein "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" that had been set out...
, ordering Iraq to immediately restore UN weapons inspections and commit to demonstrate its commitment to disarmament of weapons of mass destruction. Resolution 1441 was presented to Iraq as a "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" that had been set out in several previous resolutions.http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/11/08/resolution.text/ Iraq permitted UN weapon inspectors led by Hans Blix
Hans Blix
is a Swedish diplomat and politician for the Liberal People's Party. He was Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs . Blix was also the head of the United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission from March 2000 to June 2003, when he was succeeded by Dimitris Perrikos...
, head of United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission
United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission
The United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission was created through the adoption of United Nations Security Council resolution 1284 of 17 December 1999....
(UNMOVIC), to investigate sites suspected of potentially having weapons or weapon material.
Last years and US invasion (2000–2003)
The United States, United Kingdom and other countries were not satisfied with Iraq's commitment to Resolution 1441 and claimed that Iraq had failed to fulfill its obligations, thus authorizing military action under the authorization of Resolution 1441, and claimed that it would pursue military action regardless of the position of the UN Security Council. However the position by the United States and the United Kingdom, both permanent members in the UN Security Council was challenged by other permanent members including the People's Republic of China, France, and Russia that opposed military intervention in Iraq. Among non-permanent members, Spain supported military intervention, Germany opposed military intervention. The remaining non-permanent members including Angola, Cameroon, Chile, Germany, Guinea, Mexico, Pakistan, and Syria were neutral on the issue, favouring more time for UN weapon inspections to identify whether Iraq was in compliance of its obligations. It was highly suspected that a resolution to authorize military action against Iraq would fail in the Security Council due to vetoes by the People's Republic of China, France, and Russia as permanent members. The vote was never cast however as proponents of military intervention abandoned pressing for the new resolution. Furthermore the United States, United Kingdom and other countries had already amassed military forces around Iraq, prepared for invasion.The United States, United Kingdom, and a coalition of other countries that referred to themselves as the "Coalition of the Willing
Coalition of the willing
The term coalition of the willing is a post-1990 political phrase used to collectively describe participants in military or military-humanitarian interventions for which the United Nations Security Council cannot agree to mount a full UN peacekeeping operation...
" declared war on Iraq, claiming that Resolution 1441 was not upheld by Iraq and that under Resolution 1441, the coalition was authorized to force Iraq to comply with its obligations. United States President George W. Bush
George W. Bush
George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States, from 2001 to 2009. Before that, he was the 46th Governor of Texas, having served from 1995 to 2000....
stated that such compliance could only come by the removal of Hussein and the Ba'ath Party
Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region is a ba'athist regional organisation founded in 1951 by Fuad al-Rikabi...
from power and the establishment of a new government that would comply with the responsibilities of the United Nations.