Coups d'état in Argentina
Encyclopedia
In Argentina
there were six coups d'état
during the 20th century: in 1930, 1943, 1955, 1962, 1966 and 1976. The first four established interim dictatorship
s, while the last ones established dictatorship of permanent type on the model of a bureaucratic
-authoritarian State
. The latter imposed a Dirty War
in the line of State terrorism
, in which human rights
were systematically violated and there were tens of thousands of forced disappearance
s.
In the 53 years since the first military coup in 1930 until the last dictatorship fell in 1983, the military ruled the country for 25 years, imposing 14 dictators under the title of "president", one every 1.7 years on average. In that period, the democratically elected government experiences (radicals
, peronists
and radical-developmentalists) were interrumpted by coups.
and overthrew president
Hipólito Yrigoyen
of the Radical Civic Union
, who had been democratically elected to exercise his second term in 1928. Paradoxically, General Uriburu had been one of the organizers of the Revolution of the Park
, a civic-military uprising that give rise to the Radical Civic Union
.
On September 10, Uriburu was recognized "interim" president
of the Nation by the Supreme Court
by the agreement that led to the doctrine of de facto governments
and that would be used to legitimize all other military coups.
Following a trend which was repeated in future coups, Uriburu appointed a civilian as head of the Ministry of Economy
, José S. Pérez, who had links with the large landowners and the more conservative factions.
The military leadership established a fascist government and, for drafting the first proclamation, appointed the writer Leopoldo Lugones
. Lugones had joined the fascist cause in 1924 by giving a speech called "The Hour of the Sword", where he declared the deterioration of democracy, its instability and its evolution towards demagoguery. One of Uriburu's first initiatives was to establish an illegal repressive state structure, creating a "special section" of the police which could be used to systematically torture his opponents and which was the first such police division to use the picana
, originally for cattle, against its victims.
When Uriburu was unable to shore up the necessary political support to fully establish his fascist political regime, he called elections, but decided to prohibit the participation of the Radical Civic Union
. The reinstituation of democracy was false, restricted and controlled by the Armed Forces. This electoral fraud
gave rise to a period of conservative, corrupt governments which was dubbed the "Infamous Decade
".
On February 20 of 1932, General José Félix Uriburu
handed over power to General Agustín P. Justo, the true force behind the coup who, although involved in the coup, wanted a democratic and limited government.
which startedd with a coup d'état by the military on June 4, 1943, was distinct from the other Argentian coups in the following ways:
The Revolution of '43 was a confusing political process during which various groups, many of whom had never played a role in Argentina's history, vied for power. The coup itself was not executed to permanently establish control, so it was a transitory dictatorship that followed.
All of the military groups fighting for power during the Revolution of '43 were markedly anti-communist
and maintained strong ties to the Catholic Church which reestablished its presence (absent since the 19th century), especially in the area of education. Internal fighting unleashed two more coups, meaning there were three dictators succeeding each other in power and carrying the title of "president": Arturo Rawson
, Pedro Pablo Ramírez
y Edelmiro Farrell.
During this period, the Argentinian union
s, mainly the socialists and the syndicalists as well as a few communists, formed an alliance with a group of young army officials led by the Colonel Juan Perón
. This alliance constituted the successful nationalist labor movement which prevailed by winning popular support from the working class
and which was given the name "peronism
". This period was characterized by extreme polarization of the social class
es and led to the formation of a large social block that was strongly antiperonist and made up mostly of the middle class and upper class.
Economically, the Revolution of '43 saw the continuation of the policy of Import Substitution Industrialization.
The dictatorship ended with a call for democratic elections which were held on February 24, 1946, which all the sections of society accepted as perfect. Juan Domingo Perón won the elections and assumed the presidency on May 1, 1946. Perón would later be overthrown by the military in 1955 before finished his second term.
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The so-called Revolución Libertadora
was a transitional military dictatorship, brought about by a coup d'état which overthrew the president Juan Domingo Perón and lasted between September 16 and September 23 of 1955. On the last day of this period, the leader of the insurrection was sworn in as president and congress was dissolved. On the following day, he designated Admiral Isaac Rojas
as vice president.
During the Revolución Libertadora
, the military government created a Civilian Advisory Board composed in large part of the political parties
the Radical Civic Union
, the Socialist Party
, the National Democratic Party
, the Christian Democratic Party
, and the Democratic Progressive Party
.
The group behind the coup was divided in two parts: a Catholic
-nationalist part led by General Eduardo Lonardi
, who took charge of the government initially, and a liberal
-conservative part led by General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu
and Admiral Isaac Rojas
. The latter group ended up gaining power and executing another coup, replacing Lonardi with Aramburu as president.
The dictatorship in power imposed a ban on Peron's Justicialist Party
and began the persecution of its sympathizers, policies which it maintained for the following 18 years. The government also took over the union
s. In actions that were unprecedented in the modern history of Argentina, it shot its opponents, sometimes in public and sometimes clandestinely.
The government assigned civilians to run the Ministry of Economy
, which was run successively by Eugenio Folcini, Eugenio A. Blanco, Roberto Verrier and Adalberto Krieger Vasena, who pursued policies favorable to the most well-off and economically powerful sectors of society.
One of most significant institutional measures taken by the military dictatorship was to send out a proclamation abolishing, ipso facto, the then national constitution, known as the Constitution of 1949, and replacing it with the text from Argentina's Constitution of 1853
. Esta medida sería luego avalada por una Convención Constituyente elegida con proscripciones, que sesionó bajo el régimen militar y le agregó el artículo 14 bis.
In 1958, the government of the Revolución Libertadora
held a limited form of elections, overseen by the Armed Forces, in which the Peronist party was banned. The elections were won by the Intransigent Radical Civic Union
(UCRI), a group from the fractured Radical Civic Union
, led by Arturo Frondizi
, who had established a pact with Perón in order to attract the decisive Peronist vote. President Fondizi was, in turn, overthrown by the military four years later.
(of the UCRI
), it was not a member of the military who took power, but rather a civilian.
Frondizi endured repeated protests and military insurrections during his rule, during which even the Minister of the Economy (Álvaro Alsogaray
) opposed him. These events ended in the coup of March 29, 1962, led by General Raúl Poggi.
The event that led to the coup was the sweeping vicotry of Peronism
in the elections held eleven days before and in which ten of the fourteen then-existent provinces, including the strategic Province of Buenos Aires where the textile union
leader Andrés Framini
won. Peronism
has been banned by the government of the Revolución Libertadora
but Frondizi had allowed it in the elections, although he continued to prohibit Juan Perón
from returning to the country and from running as a candidate. Frondizi immediately moved to establish his power in the provinces in which Peronist parties had won, but the coup proved to be unstoppable.
After the military uprising of March 29, 1962, President Frondizi, who had been arrested by the military and was been held at Isla Martín García
, refused to resign saying "I will not commit suicide, I will not resign and I will not leave the country". This led to turmoil, threats and negotiations which exhausted the leaders of the insurrection who went to bed that night before formally assuming power. On the morning of March 30, the leader of the insurrection General Raúl Poggi went to the Casa Rosada
(where the office of the president is located) to take charge of the government and was surprised to find that there were journalists telling him that a civilian, José María Guido
, had been sworn in president that morning in the palace of the Supreme Court
. Guido was a senator
from the UCRI who was temporarily presiding over the senate, due to the resignation of Vicepresident Alejandro Gómez. The night of the coup, some lawyers associated with the Supreme Court
, one of whom was Horacio Oyhanarte, decided that the downfall of Frondizi had led to the case of a leaderless government and proposed to Guido that, since he was next in line of succession, he assume the presidency, which he did on the morning of March 30.
The military leaders of the coup, who were surprised, skeptical and angry, ended up reluctantly accepting the situation and called Guido to the Casa Rosada
to inform him that he would be recognized as the president, provided that he promised committed in writing to execute certain policies stipulated by the Armed Forces, the first of which was to annul the elections won by the Peronist factions. Guido accepted the military impositions, signed an act affirming this support and only then was he allowed to be given the title "president", but with the obligation of bringing the National Congress to a close and taking control of the provinces.
Guido upheld the military orders he had been given, annulling the elections, shutting down the National Congress, reinstating the ban on Peronism, taking control of the provinces and designating a right-wing
economic team which included such figures as Federico Pinedo and José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz
.
In 1963, there were more elections called in which Peronist factions were banned and which were won by Arturo Illia of the Radical Civic Union of the People (UCRP). After Illia, most votes were cast for None of the Above
which Peronists took advantage of as a form of protest. President Illia assumed power on October 12, 1963 and would later be overthrown by a military coup on June 28, 1966.
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On June 28, 1966, a military uprising led by General Juan Carlos Onganía
overthrew President Arturo Illia (of the UCRP). The coup gave rise to a dictatorship which called itself the "Argentine Revolution", which didn't claim to be a provisional government
, as was the case with the previous coups, but rather established itself as a permanent government. At the time, there were many similar permanent military dictatorships coming to power in various Latin American countries (e.g. Brazil
, Chile
, Uruguay
, Bolivia
, Paraguay
, etc.) and they was analyzed in detail by the political scientist
Guillermo O'Donnell
who gave them the name "bureaucratic-authoritarian state" (EBA).
The "Argentine Revolution" issued a statute in 1966 which held a superior judicial position to the constitution
and, in 1972, introduced constitutional reforms. This was another action that distinguished this dictatorship from the previous ones. In general, the dictatorship adopted a fascist-Catholic
-anticommunist ideology and was supported openly by the United States
as well as by Europe
an countries.
The deep political and social conflict generated during the "Argentine Revolution" and the infighting between the many military divisions led to two internal coups, with three dictators succeeding each other in power: Juan Carlos Onganía
(1966–1970), Marcelo Levingston (1970–1971) y Alejandro Agustín Lanusse
(1971–1973).
On the economic front, the dictatorship handed over the Ministry of Economy
to the most conservative-liberal
sectors of the civilian popultaion, which was epitomized by Adalberto Krieger Vasena, who had already served as minister under the "Revolución Libertadora
". However, during the dictatorship of Levingston, a nationalist-developmentalist
group of the Armed Forces became dominant and named Aldo Ferrer
of the Intransigent Radical Civic Union
as Minister of the Economy.
Threatened by a growing popular insurrection, the government organized an election to exit power in which Peronist
parties were allowed (although Perón
's candidacy was banned). The election took place in 1973 and the Peronist
candidate Héctor J. Cámpora won with 49.53% of the votes. He assumed power on May 25, 1973.
Cámpora then resigned in order to allow free elections to take place. Juan Perón
won with 62% of the votes, but died less than a year after being elected. The Peronist government, which was subsequently led by the vice president María Estela Martínez de Perón, was overthrown by a military coup in 1976.
On March 24, 1976, a new military uprising overthrew the president María Estela Martínez de Perón and established a permanent dictatorship (a bureaucratic-authoritarian state), calling itself the "National Reorganization Process
". The country was governed by a military junta
mad up of three members of the military, uno por cada fuerza. This junta appointed a functionary with the title "President" and with executive
and legislative
power.
Similar to the previous dictatorship, the military junta passed a statute and two acts which were higher on the judicial hierarchy than the constitution
.
The National Reorganization Process consisted of four successive military juntas:
During these periods, the juntas appointed the military members Jorge Rafael Videla
, Roberto Eduardo Viola
, Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri and Reynaldo Benito Bignone, respectively, as de facto presidents. Among these, Bignone was the only one not belonging to the junta.
The National Reorganization Process
began the Dirty War
, a type of state terrorism which massively violated human rights
and led to the disappearance
of tens of thousands of opponents.
Internationally, the Argentinian dictatorship, along with the human rights violations, had the active support of the government of the United States
(except during the Jimmy Carter
administration) and was tolerated by the Europe
an countries, the Soviet Union
and the Catholic Church, without whose inaction it would have been difficult for the dictatorship to sustain itself. Also, during that time, military dictatorships were established in all the countries in the Southern Cone
of South America (Argentina
, Brazil
, Bolivia
, Chile
, Paraguay
, Perú
and Uruguay
) with the support from the US
. These countries, along with the US, jointly coordinated the repression, by means of an international terrorist
organization called Operation Condor
.
In economic matters, the dictatorship formally handed over the Ministry of the Economy to the most conservative business associations which promoted economic policies which were openly de-industrialist and neoliberal, and with a maximum expansion of the foreign debt
.
In 1982, the military government entered into the Falklands War
against the United Kingdom
in an event of which the causes continue to be unclear. The defeat inflicted in this war sparked the fall of the third military junta and, a few months later, the fourth junta called elections for October 30, 1983. Raúl Alfonsín
of the Radical Civic Union
won the elections and assumed power on December 10, 1983.
The military leaders were tried and convicted, many of them being imprisoned after long and complex processes.
The "National Reorganization Process
" was the last dictatorship. Even though there were various military insurrections between 1987 and 1990, called the "Carapintadas
", none of them succeeded in toppling the democratic government.
It is also possible to see a escalation in the repressive violence and a decline in respect for legal norms in each of the coups. In particular, whereas the first four coups d'état (1930, 1943, 1955, 1962) were defined as "provisional government
s" and acted with the intention of calling democratic elections within a short time period, the two last coups (1966 and 1976) brought to power military dictatorship
s which were permanent and adhered to the idea of the bureaucratic-authoritarian state, described by Guillermo O'Donnell
.
An important element of the coups d'état in Argentina is regarding the economic policies and the attitude of the big world powers towards these policies. Firstly, the economic teams formed by the military government tended to be made of the same figures, mainly coming from the conservative-liberal
sections of society, leading some to say that the Armed Forces behaved as a political party of the upper class
es. Secondly, in almost all the coups, the hegemonic world powers participated directly, either in the coup itself or in the protection of those involved in the coup afterwards.
The coups that took place in Argentina, especially those starting from the 1960s, were part of a widespread trend in the Latin America
in which there were many military coups, most of which were supported or promoted by the United States
through the operations of the School of the Americas
, located in Panama
and through the US doctrine of National Security
.
During the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution, the doctrine of de facto governments and methods of preventing them from establishing themselves in future coups d'état were discussed at length. The result was the adoption of the first paragraph of article 36 of the National Constitution, also known as the "defense of democracy and defense of constitutional order":
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
there were six coups d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
during the 20th century: in 1930, 1943, 1955, 1962, 1966 and 1976. The first four established interim dictatorship
Dictatorship
A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, the dictator. It has three possible meanings:...
s, while the last ones established dictatorship of permanent type on the model of a bureaucratic
Bureaucracy
A bureaucracy is an organization of non-elected officials of a governmental or organization who implement the rules, laws, and functions of their institution, and are occasionally characterized by officialism and red tape.-Weberian bureaucracy:...
-authoritarian State
State (polity)
A state is an organized political community, living under a government. States may be sovereign and may enjoy a monopoly on the legal initiation of force and are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union...
. The latter imposed a Dirty War
Dirty War
The Dirty War was a period of state-sponsored violence in Argentina from 1976 until 1983. Victims of the violence included several thousand left-wing activists, including trade unionists, students, journalists, Marxists, Peronist guerrillas and alleged sympathizers, either proved or suspected...
in the line of State terrorism
State terrorism
State terrorism may refer to acts of terrorism conducted by a state against a foreign state or people. It can also refer to acts of violence by a state against its own people.-Definition:...
, in which human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
were systematically violated and there were tens of thousands of forced disappearance
Forced disappearance
In international human rights law, a forced disappearance occurs when a person is secretly abducted or imprisoned by a state or political organization or by a third party with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of a state or political organization, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the...
s.
In the 53 years since the first military coup in 1930 until the last dictatorship fell in 1983, the military ruled the country for 25 years, imposing 14 dictators under the title of "president", one every 1.7 years on average. In that period, the democratically elected government experiences (radicals
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
, peronists
Justicialist Party
The Justicialist Party , or PJ, is a Peronist political party in Argentina, and the largest component of the Peronist movement.The party was led by Néstor Kirchner, President of Argentina from 2003 to 2007, until his death on October 27, 2010. The current Argentine president, Cristina Fernández de...
and radical-developmentalists) were interrumpted by coups.
The Coup of September 6, 1930
The military coup of September 6, 1930 was led by General José Félix UriburuJosé Félix Uriburu
General José Félix Benito Uriburu y Uriburu was the first de facto President of Argentina, achieved through a military coup, from September 6, 1930 to February 20, 1932.-Biography:...
and overthrew president
President of Argentina
The President of the Argentine Nation , usually known as the President of Argentina, is the head of state of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the chief executive of the federal government and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.Through Argentine history, the...
Hipólito Yrigoyen
Hipólito Yrigoyen
Juan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Irigoyen Alem was twice President of Argentina . His activism became the prime impetus behind the obtainment of universal suffrage in Argentina in 1912...
of the Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
, who had been democratically elected to exercise his second term in 1928. Paradoxically, General Uriburu had been one of the organizers of the Revolution of the Park
Revolution of the Park
The Revolution of the Park was an uprising against the national government of Argentina that took place on 26 July 1890 and started with the takeover of the Buenos Aires Artillery Park. It was led by members of the Civic Union against the presidency of Miguel Juárez Celman...
, a civic-military uprising that give rise to the Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
.
On September 10, Uriburu was recognized "interim" president
President of Argentina
The President of the Argentine Nation , usually known as the President of Argentina, is the head of state of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the chief executive of the federal government and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.Through Argentine history, the...
of the Nation by the Supreme Court
Supreme Court of Argentina
The Supreme Court of Argentina is the highest court of law of the Argentine Republic. It was inaugurated on 15 January 1863. However, during much of the 20th century, the Court and, in general, the Argentine judicial system, has lacked autonomy from the executive power...
by the agreement that led to the doctrine of de facto governments
De facto government doctrine
The de facto government doctrine is an Argentine case law related to the validity of the actions of de facto governments. It allowed the government actions taken during those times to stay valid after the de facto government had ended...
and that would be used to legitimize all other military coups.
Following a trend which was repeated in future coups, Uriburu appointed a civilian as head of the Ministry of Economy
Minister of Economy of Argentina
The Minister of Economy is the head of the Ministry of Economy and Production of Argentina, concerned with finance and monetary matters. The position within the Government of Argentina is analogous to the finance ministers of some countries and the United States Treasury Secretary...
, José S. Pérez, who had links with the large landowners and the more conservative factions.
The military leadership established a fascist government and, for drafting the first proclamation, appointed the writer Leopoldo Lugones
Leopoldo Lugones
Leopoldo Lugones Argüello was an Argentine writer and journalist.-Early life:Born in Villa de María del Río Seco, a city in Córdoba Province, in Argentina's Catholic heartland, Lugones belonged to a family of landed gentry...
. Lugones had joined the fascist cause in 1924 by giving a speech called "The Hour of the Sword", where he declared the deterioration of democracy, its instability and its evolution towards demagoguery. One of Uriburu's first initiatives was to establish an illegal repressive state structure, creating a "special section" of the police which could be used to systematically torture his opponents and which was the first such police division to use the picana
Picana
The picana or picana electrica is a device used to give an electric shock during electrical torture.-Description and use:The picana is a wand or prod that delivers a high voltage but low current electric shock to a torture victim. It has a bronze tip and an insulated handle, and is connected by...
, originally for cattle, against its victims.
When Uriburu was unable to shore up the necessary political support to fully establish his fascist political regime, he called elections, but decided to prohibit the participation of the Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
. The reinstituation of democracy was false, restricted and controlled by the Armed Forces. This electoral fraud
Electoral fraud
Electoral fraud is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about an election result, whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates or both...
gave rise to a period of conservative, corrupt governments which was dubbed the "Infamous Decade
Infamous Decade
The Infamous Decade in Argentina is the name given to the period of time that started in 1930 with the coup d'état against President Hipólito Yrigoyen by José Félix Uriburu...
".
On February 20 of 1932, General José Félix Uriburu
José Félix Uriburu
General José Félix Benito Uriburu y Uriburu was the first de facto President of Argentina, achieved through a military coup, from September 6, 1930 to February 20, 1932.-Biography:...
handed over power to General Agustín P. Justo, the true force behind the coup who, although involved in the coup, wanted a democratic and limited government.
The Coup of June 4, 1943
The Revolution of '43Revolution of '43
The 1943 Argentine coup d'état was a Coup d'état on June 4, 1943 which ended the government of Ramón Castillo, who had been fraudulently elected to office, as part of the period known as the Infamous Decade...
which startedd with a coup d'état by the military on June 4, 1943, was distinct from the other Argentian coups in the following ways:
- Ramón CastilloRamón CastilloRamón S. Castillo Barrionuevo was a conservative Argentine politician who served as President of Argentina from June 27, 1942 to June 4, 1943...
, the toppled president, was part of the conservative regime which ruled during the "Infamous DecadeInfamous DecadeThe Infamous Decade in Argentina is the name given to the period of time that started in 1930 with the coup d'état against President Hipólito Yrigoyen by José Félix Uriburu...
" and which originated in the coup of 1930 and was supported by fraudulent general elections, repression and corruption. - It was the only military coup that unfolded in the midst of a world war.
- It didn't establish relationship with the important landowners and businessmen.
- Its outbreak was influenced by the pressure that the US was putting on Argentina to drop its position of neutralityNeutrality (international relations)A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
with respect to World War IIWorld War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, con el fin de afectar los intereses británicos en el país y reemplazar a Gran Bretaña como poder económico dominante en la Argentina. - It was the only coup in Argentina which was executed purely by the military and with popular support.
- It was a true revolution in the sense that it toppled the conservative government with its fraudulent elections, established in 1930, and had the intention of being permanent.
- Just like all the other institutional breakdowns in Argentina, it was very damaging to democracy. Although eliminating the "patriotic election rigging" of the previous decade, it continued with the line of harmful leaders in government.
The Revolution of '43 was a confusing political process during which various groups, many of whom had never played a role in Argentina's history, vied for power. The coup itself was not executed to permanently establish control, so it was a transitory dictatorship that followed.
All of the military groups fighting for power during the Revolution of '43 were markedly anti-communist
Anti-communism
Anti-communism is opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia and the beginning of the Cold War in 1947.-Objections to communist theory:...
and maintained strong ties to the Catholic Church which reestablished its presence (absent since the 19th century), especially in the area of education. Internal fighting unleashed two more coups, meaning there were three dictators succeeding each other in power and carrying the title of "president": Arturo Rawson
Arturo Rawson
Arturo Rawson was the President of Argentina from June 4, 1943 to June 7, 1943.-Biography:Born in Santiago del Estero, Rawson attended Argentina’s Military College, which he graduated from in 1907 and subsequently taught at for a time. Rawson rose through the ranks of the Argentine Army and was...
, Pedro Pablo Ramírez
Pedro Pablo Ramírez
General Pedro Pablo Ramírez was de facto President of Argentina from June 7, 1943 to February 24, 1944. He was the founder and leader of the Guardia Nacional, Argentina's Fascist militia....
y Edelmiro Farrell.
During this period, the Argentinian union
Trade union
A trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...
s, mainly the socialists and the syndicalists as well as a few communists, formed an alliance with a group of young army officials led by the Colonel Juan Perón
Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón was an Argentine military officer, and politician. Perón was three times elected as President of Argentina though he only managed to serve one full term, after serving in several government positions, including the Secretary of Labor and the Vice Presidency...
. This alliance constituted the successful nationalist labor movement which prevailed by winning popular support from the working class
Working class
Working class is a term used in the social sciences and in ordinary conversation to describe those employed in lower tier jobs , often extending to those in unemployment or otherwise possessing below-average incomes...
and which was given the name "peronism
Peronism
Peronism , or Justicialism , is an Argentine political movement based on the programmes associated with former President Juan Perón and his second wife, Eva Perón...
". This period was characterized by extreme polarization of the social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
es and led to the formation of a large social block that was strongly antiperonist and made up mostly of the middle class and upper class.
Economically, the Revolution of '43 saw the continuation of the policy of Import Substitution Industrialization.
The dictatorship ended with a call for democratic elections which were held on February 24, 1946, which all the sections of society accepted as perfect. Juan Domingo Perón won the elections and assumed the presidency on May 1, 1946. Perón would later be overthrown by the military in 1955 before finished his second term.
The Coup of September 16, 1955
Revolución Libertadora
The Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955.-History:...
was a transitional military dictatorship, brought about by a coup d'état which overthrew the president Juan Domingo Perón and lasted between September 16 and September 23 of 1955. On the last day of this period, the leader of the insurrection was sworn in as president and congress was dissolved. On the following day, he designated Admiral Isaac Rojas
Isaac Rojas
Isaac Francisco Rojas Madariaga was an Argentine Admiral of the Navy and de-facto Vice President of Argentina....
as vice president.
During the Revolución Libertadora
Revolución Libertadora
The Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955.-History:...
, the military government created a Civilian Advisory Board composed in large part of the political parties
Political Parties
Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy is a book by sociologist Robert Michels, published in 1911 , and first introducing the concept of iron law of oligarchy...
the Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
, the Socialist Party
Socialist Party (Argentina)
The Socialist Party is a social-democratic political party in Argentina. The history of socialism in Argentina began in the 1890s, when a group of people, notably Juan B. Justo, expressed the need for a greater social focus....
, the National Democratic Party
National Democratic Party (Argentina)
The National Democratic Party, or Partido Demócrata Nacional was an Argentine conservative party created in 1931 which disappeared after 1955. It was generally known simply as the Conservative Party, or Partido Conservador...
, the Christian Democratic Party
Christian Democratic Party (Argentina)
The Christian Democratic Party is a Christian Democrat political party in Argentina.The Party was founded in 1954 after several other organisations had been active promoting Christian democracy in Argentina. Leading activists in its early years included José Allende and Horacio Sueldo...
, and the Democratic Progressive Party
Democratic Progressive Party (Argentina)
The Democratic Progressive Party is a provincial political party in Santa Fe, Argentina. It was founded by Lisandro de la Torre at the Savoy Hotel in Buenos Aires on December 14, 1914. One of its founders was the academic Dr...
.
The group behind the coup was divided in two parts: a Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
-nationalist part led by General Eduardo Lonardi
Eduardo Lonardi
Eduardo A. Lonardi Doucet served as de facto president of Argentina from September 23, 1955 until November 13, 1955.-Biography:He was born on September 15, 1896....
, who took charge of the government initially, and a liberal
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
-conservative part led by General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu
Pedro Eugenio Aramburu
Pedro Eugenio Aramburu Silveti was an Argentine Army General. Born in Río Cuarto, Córdoba on May 21, 1903. He was a major figure behind the military coup against Juan Perón in 1955. He became de facto president of Argentina from November 13, 1955 to May 1, 1958...
and Admiral Isaac Rojas
Isaac Rojas
Isaac Francisco Rojas Madariaga was an Argentine Admiral of the Navy and de-facto Vice President of Argentina....
. The latter group ended up gaining power and executing another coup, replacing Lonardi with Aramburu as president.
The dictatorship in power imposed a ban on Peron's Justicialist Party
Justicialist Party
The Justicialist Party , or PJ, is a Peronist political party in Argentina, and the largest component of the Peronist movement.The party was led by Néstor Kirchner, President of Argentina from 2003 to 2007, until his death on October 27, 2010. The current Argentine president, Cristina Fernández de...
and began the persecution of its sympathizers, policies which it maintained for the following 18 years. The government also took over the union
Trade union
A trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...
s. In actions that were unprecedented in the modern history of Argentina, it shot its opponents, sometimes in public and sometimes clandestinely.
The government assigned civilians to run the Ministry of Economy
Minister of Economy of Argentina
The Minister of Economy is the head of the Ministry of Economy and Production of Argentina, concerned with finance and monetary matters. The position within the Government of Argentina is analogous to the finance ministers of some countries and the United States Treasury Secretary...
, which was run successively by Eugenio Folcini, Eugenio A. Blanco, Roberto Verrier and Adalberto Krieger Vasena, who pursued policies favorable to the most well-off and economically powerful sectors of society.
One of most significant institutional measures taken by the military dictatorship was to send out a proclamation abolishing, ipso facto, the then national constitution, known as the Constitution of 1949, and replacing it with the text from Argentina's Constitution of 1853
Argentine Constitution of 1853
The Argentine Constitution of 1853 was the first constitution of Argentina, approved with the support of the governments of the provinces —though without that of the Buenos Aires Province, who remained separated of the Argentine Confederation until 1859, after several modifications to the...
. Esta medida sería luego avalada por una Convención Constituyente elegida con proscripciones, que sesionó bajo el régimen militar y le agregó el artículo 14 bis.
In 1958, the government of the Revolución Libertadora
Revolución Libertadora
The Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955.-History:...
held a limited form of elections, overseen by the Armed Forces, in which the Peronist party was banned. The elections were won by the Intransigent Radical Civic Union
Intransigent Radical Civic Union
The Intransigent Radical Civic Union or UCRI is a defunct political party of Argentina.The UCRI developed from the centrist Radical Civic Union in 1956, following a split at the party's convention in Tucumán...
(UCRI), a group from the fractured Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
, led by Arturo Frondizi
Arturo Frondizi
Arturo Frondizi Ercoli was the President of Argentina between May 1, 1958, and March 29, 1962, for the Intransigent Radical Civic Union.-Early life:Frondizi was born in Paso de los Libres, Corrientes Province...
, who had established a pact with Perón in order to attract the decisive Peronist vote. President Fondizi was, in turn, overthrown by the military four years later.
The Coup of March 29, 1962
The military coup of March 29, 1962 was unique in that, after overthrowing Arturo FrondiziArturo Frondizi
Arturo Frondizi Ercoli was the President of Argentina between May 1, 1958, and March 29, 1962, for the Intransigent Radical Civic Union.-Early life:Frondizi was born in Paso de los Libres, Corrientes Province...
(of the UCRI
Intransigent Radical Civic Union
The Intransigent Radical Civic Union or UCRI is a defunct political party of Argentina.The UCRI developed from the centrist Radical Civic Union in 1956, following a split at the party's convention in Tucumán...
), it was not a member of the military who took power, but rather a civilian.
Frondizi endured repeated protests and military insurrections during his rule, during which even the Minister of the Economy (Álvaro Alsogaray
Álvaro Alsogaray
Álvaro Carlos Alsogaray was an Argentine politician and businessman. Minister of Economy during much of the 1959-62 period, he was one of the principal proponents of economic conservatism in modern Argentina.-Early career:...
) opposed him. These events ended in the coup of March 29, 1962, led by General Raúl Poggi.
The event that led to the coup was the sweeping vicotry of Peronism
Peronism
Peronism , or Justicialism , is an Argentine political movement based on the programmes associated with former President Juan Perón and his second wife, Eva Perón...
in the elections held eleven days before and in which ten of the fourteen then-existent provinces, including the strategic Province of Buenos Aires where the textile union
Syndicalism
Syndicalism is a type of economic system proposed as a replacement for capitalism and an alternative to state socialism, which uses federations of collectivised trade unions or industrial unions...
leader Andrés Framini
Andrés Framini
Andrés Framini was an Argentine labor leader and politician.-Early career:Andrés Framini was born in the working-class La Plata suburb of Berisso, in 1914. He entered the labor force as a peon in one of Buenos Aires' many textile manufacturers, eventually working for the important Piccaluga...
won. Peronism
Peronism
Peronism , or Justicialism , is an Argentine political movement based on the programmes associated with former President Juan Perón and his second wife, Eva Perón...
has been banned by the government of the Revolución Libertadora
Revolución Libertadora
The Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955.-History:...
but Frondizi had allowed it in the elections, although he continued to prohibit Juan Perón
Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón was an Argentine military officer, and politician. Perón was three times elected as President of Argentina though he only managed to serve one full term, after serving in several government positions, including the Secretary of Labor and the Vice Presidency...
from returning to the country and from running as a candidate. Frondizi immediately moved to establish his power in the provinces in which Peronist parties had won, but the coup proved to be unstoppable.
After the military uprising of March 29, 1962, President Frondizi, who had been arrested by the military and was been held at Isla Martín García
Isla Martín García
Isla Martín García is an Argentine island off the Río de la Plata coast of Uruguay. The enclave island is within the boundaries of Uruguayan waters; in 1973 both countries reached an agreement establishing Martín García as an Argentine territory and also as a nature reserve.The island of has a...
, refused to resign saying "I will not commit suicide, I will not resign and I will not leave the country". This led to turmoil, threats and negotiations which exhausted the leaders of the insurrection who went to bed that night before formally assuming power. On the morning of March 30, the leader of the insurrection General Raúl Poggi went to the Casa Rosada
Casa Rosada
La Casa Rosada is the official seat of the executive branch of the government of Argentina, and of the offices of the President. The President normally lives at the Quinta de Olivos, a compound in Olivos, Buenos Aires Province. Its characteristic color is pink, and is considered one of the most...
(where the office of the president is located) to take charge of the government and was surprised to find that there were journalists telling him that a civilian, José María Guido
José María Guido
José María Guido was an interim President of Argentina from 30 March 1962 to 12 October 1963.Guido was elected to the Argentine Senate for Río Negro Province in 1958, representing the Intransigent Radical Civic Union...
, had been sworn in president that morning in the palace of the Supreme Court
Supreme Court of Argentina
The Supreme Court of Argentina is the highest court of law of the Argentine Republic. It was inaugurated on 15 January 1863. However, during much of the 20th century, the Court and, in general, the Argentine judicial system, has lacked autonomy from the executive power...
. Guido was a senator
Argentine Senate
The Argentine Senate is the upper house of the Argentine National Congress. It has 72 senators: three for each province and three for the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires...
from the UCRI who was temporarily presiding over the senate, due to the resignation of Vicepresident Alejandro Gómez. The night of the coup, some lawyers associated with the Supreme Court
Supreme Court of Argentina
The Supreme Court of Argentina is the highest court of law of the Argentine Republic. It was inaugurated on 15 January 1863. However, during much of the 20th century, the Court and, in general, the Argentine judicial system, has lacked autonomy from the executive power...
, one of whom was Horacio Oyhanarte, decided that the downfall of Frondizi had led to the case of a leaderless government and proposed to Guido that, since he was next in line of succession, he assume the presidency, which he did on the morning of March 30.
The military leaders of the coup, who were surprised, skeptical and angry, ended up reluctantly accepting the situation and called Guido to the Casa Rosada
Casa Rosada
La Casa Rosada is the official seat of the executive branch of the government of Argentina, and of the offices of the President. The President normally lives at the Quinta de Olivos, a compound in Olivos, Buenos Aires Province. Its characteristic color is pink, and is considered one of the most...
to inform him that he would be recognized as the president, provided that he promised committed in writing to execute certain policies stipulated by the Armed Forces, the first of which was to annul the elections won by the Peronist factions. Guido accepted the military impositions, signed an act affirming this support and only then was he allowed to be given the title "president", but with the obligation of bringing the National Congress to a close and taking control of the provinces.
Guido upheld the military orders he had been given, annulling the elections, shutting down the National Congress, reinstating the ban on Peronism, taking control of the provinces and designating a right-wing
Right-wing politics
In politics, Right, right-wing and rightist generally refer to support for a hierarchical society justified on the basis of an appeal to natural law or tradition. To varying degrees, the Right rejects the egalitarian objectives of left-wing politics, claiming that the imposition of equality is...
economic team which included such figures as Federico Pinedo and José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz
José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz
José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz was an Argentine executive and policy maker. He served as Minister of the Economy under de facto President Jorge Rafael Videla between 1976 and 1981, and shaped economic policy during the self-styled National Reorganization Process military dictatorship.-Early...
.
In 1963, there were more elections called in which Peronist factions were banned and which were won by Arturo Illia of the Radical Civic Union of the People (UCRP). After Illia, most votes were cast for None of the Above
None of the above
None of the Above or against all is a ballot option in some jurisdictions or organizations, designed to allow the voter to indicate disapproval of all of the candidates in a voting system...
which Peronists took advantage of as a form of protest. President Illia assumed power on October 12, 1963 and would later be overthrown by a military coup on June 28, 1966.
The Coup of June 28, 1966
Juan Carlos Onganía
Juan Carlos Onganía Carballo was de facto president of Argentina from 29 June 1966 to 8 June 1970. He rose to power as military dictator after toppling, in a coup d’état self-named Revolución Argentina , the democratically elected president Arturo Illia .-Economic and social...
overthrew President Arturo Illia (of the UCRP). The coup gave rise to a dictatorship which called itself the "Argentine Revolution", which didn't claim to be a provisional government
Provisional government
A provisional government is an emergency or interim government set up when a political void has been created by the collapse of a very large government. The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule...
, as was the case with the previous coups, but rather established itself as a permanent government. At the time, there were many similar permanent military dictatorships coming to power in various Latin American countries (e.g. Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, Uruguay
Uruguay
Uruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
, Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
, Paraguay
Paraguay
Paraguay , officially the Republic of Paraguay , is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to the east and northeast, and Bolivia to the northwest. Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the...
, etc.) and they was analyzed in detail by the political scientist
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
Guillermo O'Donnell
Guillermo O'Donnell
Guillermo O'Donnell was a prominent Argentine political scientist, named the Helen Kellogg Professor of Government and International Studies at the University of Notre Dame in the United States. His brother, Pacho O'Donnell, is a well-known politician and writer.-Biography:O'Donnell was born in...
who gave them the name "bureaucratic-authoritarian state" (EBA).
The "Argentine Revolution" issued a statute in 1966 which held a superior judicial position to the constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
and, in 1972, introduced constitutional reforms. This was another action that distinguished this dictatorship from the previous ones. In general, the dictatorship adopted a fascist-Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
-anticommunist ideology and was supported openly by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
as well as by Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an countries.
The deep political and social conflict generated during the "Argentine Revolution" and the infighting between the many military divisions led to two internal coups, with three dictators succeeding each other in power: Juan Carlos Onganía
Juan Carlos Onganía
Juan Carlos Onganía Carballo was de facto president of Argentina from 29 June 1966 to 8 June 1970. He rose to power as military dictator after toppling, in a coup d’état self-named Revolución Argentina , the democratically elected president Arturo Illia .-Economic and social...
(1966–1970), Marcelo Levingston (1970–1971) y Alejandro Agustín Lanusse
Alejandro Agustín Lanusse
Alejandro Agustín Lanusse Gelly was the 38th president of the Argentine Republic between March 22, 1971 and May 25, 1973, during the penultimate military dictatorship.- Career :...
(1971–1973).
On the economic front, the dictatorship handed over the Ministry of Economy
Minister of Economy of Argentina
The Minister of Economy is the head of the Ministry of Economy and Production of Argentina, concerned with finance and monetary matters. The position within the Government of Argentina is analogous to the finance ministers of some countries and the United States Treasury Secretary...
to the most conservative-liberal
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
sectors of the civilian popultaion, which was epitomized by Adalberto Krieger Vasena, who had already served as minister under the "Revolución Libertadora
Revolución Libertadora
The Revolución Libertadora was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Juan Perón in Argentina, on September 16, 1955.-History:...
". However, during the dictatorship of Levingston, a nationalist-developmentalist
Developmentalism
Developmentalism is an economic theory which states that the best way for Third World countries to develop is through fostering a strong and varied internal market and to impose high tariffs on imported goods....
group of the Armed Forces became dominant and named Aldo Ferrer
Aldo Ferrer
Aldo Ferrer is a prominent Argentine economist and policy maker.-Early career:Aldo Ferrer was born in Buenos Aires in 1927, and enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires School of Economics, where he received a Doctorate in 1949...
of the Intransigent Radical Civic Union
Intransigent Radical Civic Union
The Intransigent Radical Civic Union or UCRI is a defunct political party of Argentina.The UCRI developed from the centrist Radical Civic Union in 1956, following a split at the party's convention in Tucumán...
as Minister of the Economy.
Threatened by a growing popular insurrection, the government organized an election to exit power in which Peronist
Peronism
Peronism , or Justicialism , is an Argentine political movement based on the programmes associated with former President Juan Perón and his second wife, Eva Perón...
parties were allowed (although Perón
Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón was an Argentine military officer, and politician. Perón was three times elected as President of Argentina though he only managed to serve one full term, after serving in several government positions, including the Secretary of Labor and the Vice Presidency...
's candidacy was banned). The election took place in 1973 and the Peronist
Peronism
Peronism , or Justicialism , is an Argentine political movement based on the programmes associated with former President Juan Perón and his second wife, Eva Perón...
candidate Héctor J. Cámpora won with 49.53% of the votes. He assumed power on May 25, 1973.
Cámpora then resigned in order to allow free elections to take place. Juan Perón
Juan Perón
Juan Domingo Perón was an Argentine military officer, and politician. Perón was three times elected as President of Argentina though he only managed to serve one full term, after serving in several government positions, including the Secretary of Labor and the Vice Presidency...
won with 62% of the votes, but died less than a year after being elected. The Peronist government, which was subsequently led by the vice president María Estela Martínez de Perón, was overthrown by a military coup in 1976.
Coup of March 24, 1976
National Reorganization Process
The National Reorganization Process was the name used by its leaders for the military government that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. In Argentina it is often known simply as la última junta militar or la última dictadura , because several of them existed throughout its history.The Argentine...
". The country was governed by a military junta
Military junta
A junta or military junta is a government led by a committee of military leaders. The term derives from the Spanish language junta meaning committee, specifically a board of directors...
mad up of three members of the military, uno por cada fuerza. This junta appointed a functionary with the title "President" and with executive
Executive (government)
Executive branch of Government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers.In many countries, the term...
and legislative
Legislature
A legislature is a kind of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise or lower taxes and adopt the budget and...
power.
Similar to the previous dictatorship, the military junta passed a statute and two acts which were higher on the judicial hierarchy than the constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
.
The National Reorganization Process consisted of four successive military juntas:
- 1976-1980: Jorge Rafael VidelaJorge Rafael VidelaJorge Rafael Videla Redondo is a former senior commander in the Argentine Army who was the de facto President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981. He came to power in a coup d'état that deposed Isabel Martínez de Perón...
, Emilio Eduardo MasseraEmilio Eduardo MasseraEmilio Eduardo Massera was an Argentine military officer, and a leading participant in the Argentine coup d'état of 1976. In 1981, he was found to be a member of P2...
and Orlando Ramón AgostiOrlando Ramon AgostiOrlando Ramón Agosti was an Argentine general. With General Jorge Rafael Videla, he ruled Argentina between 1976 and 1981... - 1980-1981: Roberto Eduardo ViolaRoberto Eduardo ViolaRoberto Eduardo Viola Redondo was an Argentine military officer who briefly served as president of Argentina from March 29 to December 11, 1981 during a period of military rule.-President of Argentina:...
, Armando LambruschiniArmando LambruschiniArmando Lambruschini was an admiral in the Argentine Navy.-Life and career:He enrolled at the Argentine Naval School in 1942, and graduated as a midshipman in 1946...
and Omar Domingo Rubens Graffigna - 1981-1982: Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri, Jorge Isaac Anaya and Basilio Lami DozoBasilio Lami DozoBrigadier General Basilio Arturo Ignacio Lami Dozo was a member of the Argentine Air Force.He participated in the military dictatorship known as the National Reorganisation Process and, along with Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri and Jorge Isaac Anaya, was a member of the Third Military Junta that...
- 1982-1983: Cristino Nicolaides, Rubén Franco and Augusto Jorge Hughes
During these periods, the juntas appointed the military members Jorge Rafael Videla
Jorge Rafael Videla
Jorge Rafael Videla Redondo is a former senior commander in the Argentine Army who was the de facto President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981. He came to power in a coup d'état that deposed Isabel Martínez de Perón...
, Roberto Eduardo Viola
Roberto Eduardo Viola
Roberto Eduardo Viola Redondo was an Argentine military officer who briefly served as president of Argentina from March 29 to December 11, 1981 during a period of military rule.-President of Argentina:...
, Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri and Reynaldo Benito Bignone, respectively, as de facto presidents. Among these, Bignone was the only one not belonging to the junta.
The National Reorganization Process
National Reorganization Process
The National Reorganization Process was the name used by its leaders for the military government that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. In Argentina it is often known simply as la última junta militar or la última dictadura , because several of them existed throughout its history.The Argentine...
began the Dirty War
Dirty War
The Dirty War was a period of state-sponsored violence in Argentina from 1976 until 1983. Victims of the violence included several thousand left-wing activists, including trade unionists, students, journalists, Marxists, Peronist guerrillas and alleged sympathizers, either proved or suspected...
, a type of state terrorism which massively violated human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
and led to the disappearance
Forced disappearance
In international human rights law, a forced disappearance occurs when a person is secretly abducted or imprisoned by a state or political organization or by a third party with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of a state or political organization, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the...
of tens of thousands of opponents.
Internationally, the Argentinian dictatorship, along with the human rights violations, had the active support of the government of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
(except during the Jimmy Carter
Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office...
administration) and was tolerated by the Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an countries, the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
and the Catholic Church, without whose inaction it would have been difficult for the dictatorship to sustain itself. Also, during that time, military dictatorships were established in all the countries in the Southern Cone
Southern Cone
Southern Cone is a geographic region composed of the southernmost areas of South America, south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Although geographically this includes part of Southern and Southeast of Brazil, in terms of political geography the Southern cone has traditionally comprised Argentina,...
of South America (Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
, Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
, Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, Paraguay
Paraguay
Paraguay , officially the Republic of Paraguay , is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to the east and northeast, and Bolivia to the northwest. Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the...
, Perú
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
and Uruguay
Uruguay
Uruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
) with the support from the US
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. These countries, along with the US, jointly coordinated the repression, by means of an international terrorist
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
organization called Operation Condor
Operation Condor
Operation Condor , was a campaign of political repression involving assassination and intelligence operations officially implemented in 1975 by the right-wing dictatorships of the Southern Cone of South America...
.
In economic matters, the dictatorship formally handed over the Ministry of the Economy to the most conservative business associations which promoted economic policies which were openly de-industrialist and neoliberal, and with a maximum expansion of the foreign debt
External debt
External debt is that part of the total debt in a country that is owed to creditors outside the country. The debtors can be the government, corporations or private households. The debt includes money owed to private commercial banks, other governments, or international financial institutions such...
.
In 1982, the military government entered into the Falklands War
Falklands War
The Falklands War , also called the Falklands Conflict or Falklands Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the disputed Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands...
against the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
in an event of which the causes continue to be unclear. The defeat inflicted in this war sparked the fall of the third military junta and, a few months later, the fourth junta called elections for October 30, 1983. Raúl Alfonsín
Raúl Alfonsín
Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín was an Argentine lawyer, politician and statesman, who served as the President of Argentina from December 10, 1983, to July 8, 1989. Alfonsín was the first democratically-elected president of Argentina following the military government known as the National Reorganization...
of the Radical Civic Union
Radical Civic Union
The Radical Civic Union is a political party in Argentina. The party's positions on issues range from liberal to social democratic. The UCR is a member of the Socialist International. Founded in 1891 by radical liberals, it is the oldest political party active in Argentina...
won the elections and assumed power on December 10, 1983.
The military leaders were tried and convicted, many of them being imprisoned after long and complex processes.
The "National Reorganization Process
National Reorganization Process
The National Reorganization Process was the name used by its leaders for the military government that ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1983. In Argentina it is often known simply as la última junta militar or la última dictadura , because several of them existed throughout its history.The Argentine...
" was the last dictatorship. Even though there were various military insurrections between 1987 and 1990, called the "Carapintadas
Carapintadas
The were a group of mutineers in the Argentine Army, who took part in uprisings during the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín in Argentina.In December 1986, the Ley de Punto Final was introduced...
", none of them succeeded in toppling the democratic government.
General Notes
The coups d'état in Argentina generated a series of specific political-judicial problems:- The "de facto government doctrineDe facto government doctrineThe de facto government doctrine is an Argentine case law related to the validity of the actions of de facto governments. It allowed the government actions taken during those times to stay valid after the de facto government had ended...
" of the Supreme CourtSupreme Court of ArgentinaThe Supreme Court of Argentina is the highest court of law of the Argentine Republic. It was inaugurated on 15 January 1863. However, during much of the 20th century, the Court and, in general, the Argentine judicial system, has lacked autonomy from the executive power...
; - The validity and fate of the so-called "decree lawsDecreeA decree is a rule of law issued by a head of state , according to certain procedures . It has the force of law...
" and other regulations passed by the military governments, once the dictatorships had ended; - The punishment of those involved in the coups.
It is also possible to see a escalation in the repressive violence and a decline in respect for legal norms in each of the coups. In particular, whereas the first four coups d'état (1930, 1943, 1955, 1962) were defined as "provisional government
Provisional government
A provisional government is an emergency or interim government set up when a political void has been created by the collapse of a very large government. The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule...
s" and acted with the intention of calling democratic elections within a short time period, the two last coups (1966 and 1976) brought to power military dictatorship
Military dictatorship
A military dictatorship is a form of government where in the political power resides with the military. It is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military....
s which were permanent and adhered to the idea of the bureaucratic-authoritarian state, described by Guillermo O'Donnell
Guillermo O'Donnell
Guillermo O'Donnell was a prominent Argentine political scientist, named the Helen Kellogg Professor of Government and International Studies at the University of Notre Dame in the United States. His brother, Pacho O'Donnell, is a well-known politician and writer.-Biography:O'Donnell was born in...
.
An important element of the coups d'état in Argentina is regarding the economic policies and the attitude of the big world powers towards these policies. Firstly, the economic teams formed by the military government tended to be made of the same figures, mainly coming from the conservative-liberal
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
sections of society, leading some to say that the Armed Forces behaved as a political party of the upper class
Upper class
In social science, the "upper class" is the group of people at the top of a social hierarchy. Members of an upper class may have great power over the allocation of resources and governmental policy in their area.- Historical meaning :...
es. Secondly, in almost all the coups, the hegemonic world powers participated directly, either in the coup itself or in the protection of those involved in the coup afterwards.
The coups that took place in Argentina, especially those starting from the 1960s, were part of a widespread trend in the Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
in which there were many military coups, most of which were supported or promoted by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
through the operations of the School of the Americas
Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation
The Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation , formerly the United States Army School of the Americas is a United States Department of Defense educational and training facility at Fort Benning near Columbus, Georgia in the United States...
, located in Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
and through the US doctrine of National Security
National security
National security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the state through the use of economic, diplomacy, power projection and political power. The concept developed mostly in the United States of America after World War II...
.
During the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution, the doctrine of de facto governments and methods of preventing them from establishing themselves in future coups d'état were discussed at length. The result was the adoption of the first paragraph of article 36 of the National Constitution, also known as the "defense of democracy and defense of constitutional order":
See also
- Military dictatorshipMilitary dictatorshipA military dictatorship is a form of government where in the political power resides with the military. It is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military....
- Military juntaMilitary juntaA junta or military junta is a government led by a committee of military leaders. The term derives from the Spanish language junta meaning committee, specifically a board of directors...
- History of ArgentinaHistory of ArgentinaThe history of Argentina is divided by historians into four main parts: the pre-Columbian time, or early history , the colonial period , the independence wars and the early post-colonial period of the nation and the history of modern Argentina .The beginning of prehistory in the present territory of...
- 1976 Argentine coup d'état1976 Argentine coup d'étatThe 1976 Argentine coup was a right-wing coup d'état that overthrew Isabel Perón on 24 March 1976, in Argentina. In her place, a military junta was installed, which was headed by General Jorge Rafael Videla, Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera and Brigadier Orlando Ramón Agosti...