Dummer's War
Encyclopedia
Dummer's War also known as Lovewell's War
, Father Rale's War
, Greylock's War
, the Three Years War, the 4th Indian War or the Wabanaki-New England War of 1722–1725, was a series of battles between British settlers of the three northernmost British colonies of North America of the time and the Wabanaki Confederacy
(specifically Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Abenaki), who were allied with New France
. The war took place variously in Nova Scotia
, New Hampshire
, and Massachusetts
(which included present-day Maine
and Vermont
). The root cause of the conflict was tension over the ownership of these regions.
The treaty that ended the war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be negotiated with the region's indigenous inhabitants.
The war was commemorated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
with his poem, "The Battle of Lovells Pond", and by Nathaniel Hawthorne
with his story, "Roger Malvin's Burial
".
(in present-day Maine) and of the movement of more New England fishermen into Nova Scotia waters (particularly at Canso
). The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht
, which ended Queen Anne's War
, had facilitated this expansion. The treaty, however, had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki natives. None had been consulted, and they protested through raids on British fishermen and settlements. For the first and only time, Wabanaki would fight New Englanders and the British on their own terms and for their own reasons and not principally to defend French imperial interests. In response to Wabanaki hostilities toward the expansion, the governor of Nova Scotia, Richard Phillips
, built a fort in traditional Mi'kmaq territory at Canso
in 1720, and Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute
built forts on traditional Abenaki territory around the mouth of the Kennebec River: Fort George
at Brunswick
(1715); St. George's Fort at Thomaston
(1720); and Fort Richmond (1721) at Richmond
. The French claimed the same territory on the Kennebec River by building churches in the Abenaki villages of Norridgewock
and Medoctec further upriver.
These fortifications escalated the conflict. A Jesuit missionary
named Sébastien Rale
(also spelled Rasles) was stationed at Norridgewock, while an Abenaki named Gray Lock
led raids against the encroaching New England settlements. In the fall of 1721, the Abenakis burned the farms and killed livestock in the settlements around Casco Bay
.
]
Governor Shute chose to launch a punitive expedition against Father Rale at Norridgewock in March 1722. While the New England Rangers
were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, they plundered the church and Rale's cabin. While most of the tribe was away hunting, 300 soldiers under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook
surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale, but again he was forewarned and escaped into the forest. Found among the priest's possessions, however, was his strongbox with a hidden compartment containing letters implicating Rale as an agent of the French government, promising Indians enough ammunition to drive the English from their settlements.
In response, on June 13, the Abenakis raided Brunswick
, a British settlement at Merrymeeting Bay
near the mouth of the Kennebec River. In early July 1722, 500-600 natives laid siege to Fort St. Georges at Thomaston
for twelve days. Five New Englanders were killed, as were twenty natives. Following this raid, Brunswick was raided again and burned.
In Nova Scotia, the Mi'kmaq raided the new fort at Canso (1720). Under potential siege, in May 1722, Lieutenant Governor John Doucett
took 22 Mi'kmaq hostage at Annapolis Royal
to prevent the capital from being attacked. In July 1722 the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq blockaded Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving the capital. The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners from present-day Cape Sable Island to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels from the Bay of Fundy
.
As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Shute officially declared war on the Abenaki on July 25, 1722. Shute, who had ongoing political disputes with the Massachusetts assembly, abruptly sailed for England on January 1, 1723, leaving Lieutenant Governor William Dummer
to manage Massachusetts involvement in the war.
, Georgetown, Maine
. Captain Penhallow discharged musketry from a small guard, wounding three of the Indians and killing another. This defense gave the inhabitants of the village time to retreat into the fort. In full possession of the undefended village, the Indians killed fifty head of cattle and set fire to twenty-six houses outside the fort. The Indians then assaulted the fort, killing one New Englander, but otherwise making little impression.
That night Col. Walton and Capt. Harman arrived with thirty men, to which were joined about forty men from the fort under Captains Penhallow and Temple. The combined force of seventy men attacked the natives but were overwhelmed by their numbers. The New Englanders then retreated back into the fort. Viewing further attacks on the fort as useless, the Indians eventually retired up the river. During their return to Norridgewock the natives attacked Fort Richmond.
and traveled approximately 32 miles (51.5 km) upstream to present-day Old Town, Maine
, next to the Indian Island
. They marched through the woods for days and found a large native fort—70 yard by 50 yard, with 14 feet (4.3 m) walls surrounding 23 wigwams. There was also a large chapel (60 by 30 feet). The village was vacant of people, and the soldiers burned it to the ground.
Throughout 1723 there were fourteen native raids on the Protestant settlements, primarily in present-day Maine. In April 1723, there was a raid on Falmouth
in which the raiders mistook Chubb to be Captain Harmen and killed him. On April 19, 1723, Scarborough was raided, in which Roger Deering, his wife, two other inhabitants, and two soldiers were killed. Taken captive were three adults and three of Deering's children.
In May 1723, the natives killed two people in a raid on Berwick, one at Wells
and two on the way to York
.
On August 13, 1723 Gray Lock raided Northfield, Massachusetts
, and four warriors killed two citizens near Northfield. The next day they attacked Joseph Stevens and his four sons in Rutland
. Stevens escaped, two boys were killed, and the other two sons were captured. In August and September 1723, there were also raids on Saco, Maine
and Dover, New Hampshire
. Captain Heath and 13 men including two Mohawks met with 30 natives in the battle at Richmond, Maine
. They killed two and drove off the rest. One New Englander was killed and two wounded.
On October 9, 1723, Grey Lock struck two small forts near Northfield, inflicting casualties and carrying off one captive. In response, Fort Dummer
was built near Brattleboro, Vermont
. The fort became a major base of operations for scouting and punitive expeditions into Abenaki country.
In an October raid at Mount Desert
, one Capt. Cogswell and his crew were surprised and taken as they were stepping ashore; and about the same time, Smith and Bailey were killed at Cape Porpoise
, one on Vaughan's Island, and the other on the seashore, not far from the site of the old meeting-house.
On December 25, 1723, 60 natives laid siege to St. Georges fort at Thomaston, Maine
for thirty days. But Capt. Kennedy, the commanding officer, held out till Col. Thomas Westbrook
arrived and put the enemy to flight. The Indians killed another man, Reverend Willard.
, a sloop was taken, and the whole crew was put to death. About the same time, three men were killed at a saw-mill on the same river.
At Berwick in May, a father was killed, one of his children was imprisoned, and the other escaped being scalped but was seriously wounded. Another man also survived a scalping attempt although his body was badly mangled. One other person was killed. On May 1, 1724, on the St. Georges river
Captain Josiah Winslow and thirteen men were ambushed by over 90 natives in 30 canoes. The native Tarrantines were reported to have lost over 25 warriors.
On May 27 at Purpooduck, the natives killed one man and wounded another. On the same day, a man was killed at Saco.
On June 18, 1724 Grey Lock attacked a group of men working in a meadow near Hatfield, Massachusetts
. Grey Lock retired from the area and killed men at Deerfield
, Northfield
, and Westfield
over the summer. In response to the raids, Dummer ordered more soldiers for Northfield, Brookfield
, Deerfield and Sunderland
.
On July 17 at Spurwick, one New Englander was killed and one native.
During this campaign, assisted by the Mi'kmaq from Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, the natives also engaged in a naval campaign. In just a few weeks they had captured twenty-two vessels, killing 22 New Englanders and taking more prisoner (p. 127). They also made an unsuccessful siege of St. George's Fort.
To defend against Gray Lock attacks at Northfield and Rutland
, the English built Fort Dummer
, near present-day Brattleboro, Vermont
, in 1724.
and Penobscot
rivers. Never before had the New Englanders been so successful in penetrating Abenaki lands.
On August 22, 1724, Captains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon led 200 rangers
to the main Abenaki village on the Kennebec River, Norridgewock, Maine, to kill Father Sébastien Rale
and destroy the settlement. There were 160 Abenaki, many of whom chose to flee rather than fight. At least 31 chose to fight, which allowed the others to escape. Most of the defenders were killed. Rale was killed in the opening moments of the battle, a leading chief was killed, and the rangers massacred nearly two dozen women and children. The English had casualties of two militiamen and one Mohawk. Harmon destroyed the Abenaki farms, and those who had escaped were forced to abandon their village and moved northward to the Abenaki village of Odanak, Quebec
.
After Norridgewock, the natives settled at St. Francis and Becancour.
along with a company of rangers killed two Abenakis.
Lovewell and his militia company (often called "snowshoe men") of 30 men left Dunstable, New Hampshire
on their first expedition in December of 1724, trekking to the north of Lake Winnipesaukee
("Winnipiscogee Lake") into the White Mountains
of New Hampshire
. On December 19, 40 miles (64.4 km) north of Winnipesaukee, the troop came upon a wigwam
, where they killed and scalped
an Abenaki man and took an Abenaki boy captive in response to the abduction of two men from Dunstable and the ambush and killing of eight others by Abenaki warriors. The company was paid 200 pound
s for the scalp (150 pounds plus 50 pounds over and above).
On February 20 they came across a recently inhabited wigwam and followed tracks for some five miles. On the banks of a pond at the head of the Salmon Falls River
in the present town of Wakefield, New Hampshire
they came upon more wigwams with smoke rising from them. Some time after 2:00 AM Lovewell gave the order to fire. A short time later ten Indians
lay dead. The Indians were said to have had numerous extra blanket
s, snowshoe
s, moccasins
, a few furs
and new French
musket
s, which would seem to indicate that they were on their way to attack frontier settlements. Preventing such an attack is probably the true success of this expedition.
Early in March Lovewell's troops arrived in Boston
. They paraded their Indian scalps through the streets, Lovewell himself wearing a wig made of Indian scalps. The bounty paid was 1000 pounds (100 per scalp).
tribe at Fryeburg, Maine, on May 8, 1725.
The third expedition consisted of only 46 men and left from Dunstable on April 16, 1725. They built a fort at Ossipee
and left 10 men, including the doctor and John Goffe
, to garrison the fort while the rest left to raid the Abenaki town of Pequawket, now Fryeburg. On May 9, as the militiamen were being led in prayer by chaplain
Jonathan Frye, a lone Abenaki warrior was spotted. Lovewell's men waited until the warrior was close and fired at him but missed. The Abenaki returned fire, killing Lovewell. Ensign
Seth Wyman, Lovewell's second in command, killed the warrior with the next shot. Chaplain Frye then scalped the dead Indian. The militia had left their packs a ways back so as to be unencumbered by them in battle. Two returning war parties of Abenaki led by Paugus and Nat found them and waited in ambush for the returning militia. Eight men were killed in the first volley by the Indian warriors. The battle continued for more than 10 hours until Ensign Wyman killed the Indian war chief Paugus. With the death of Paugus the rest of the Indians soon vanished into the forest. Only 20 of the militiamen survived the battle; three died on the retreat home. The Abenaki losses except for Paugus are unknown. The Abenaki deserted the town of Pequawket after the battle and fled to Canada
.
In September 1725, a scouting party of six men was sent out from Fort Dummer. Grey Lock and 14 others ambushed them just west of the Connecticut River – killing two and wounding and capturing three others. One man escaped, while two Indians were killed.
, in which 35 natives and five New Englanders were killed. Only five native bodies were recovered from the battle, and the New Englanders decapitated the corpses and set the severed heads on pikes surrounding Canso's new fort.
In 1723, the village of Canso was raided again by the Mi'kmaq, who killed five fishermen. In this same year, the New Englanders built a twelve-gun blockhouse to guard the village and fishery.
The worst moment of the war for Annapolis Royal came on 4 July 1724 when a group of sixty Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided the capital. They killed and scalped a sergeant and a private, wounded four more soldiers, and terrorized the village. They also burned houses and took prisoners. The British responded by executing one of the Mi'kmaq hostages on the same spot the sergeant was killed. They also burned three Acadian houses in retaliation. As a result of the raid, three blockhouses were built to protect the town. The Acadian church was moved closer to the fort so that it could be more easily monitored.
In 1725, sixty Abenakis and Mi'kmaq launch another attack on Canso
destroying two houses and killing six people.
Unlike the Abenaki in Maine, the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet of Nova Scotia refused to declare themselves British subjects. The war had been as much a native victory as it was a British one. The British were forced to acknowledge that the natives had a right to possess their land.
The goal of the colonies was less the defeat of the aboriginal populations than influencing the Wabanaki to become allies of the British king and enemies of the French.
The peace in Nova Scotia would last for eighteen years.
John Lovewell (Junior)
John Lovewell was a famous Ranger in the 18th century who fought during Dummer's War . He lived in present-day Nashua, New Hampshire...
, Father Rale's War
Sébastien Rale
Sébastien Rale, , , was a Jesuit missionary and lexicographer who worked among the eastern Abenaki people, but became caught up in political and military struggles between New France, New England and the natives, which would claim his life during Dummer's War.-Early years:Born in Pontarlier, France,...
, Greylock's War
Gray Lock
Chief Gray Lock , was a Western Abenaki Missisquoi chief of Woronoco/Pocumtuck ancestry. Gray Lock was born near Westfield, Massachusetts, around 1670...
, the Three Years War, the 4th Indian War or the Wabanaki-New England War of 1722–1725, was a series of battles between British settlers of the three northernmost British colonies of North America of the time and the Wabanaki Confederacy
Wabanaki Confederacy
The Wabanaki Confederacy, as it is known in English, is a historical confederation of five North American Algonquian language speaking Indian tribes....
(specifically Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and Abenaki), who were allied with New France
New France
New France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period beginning with the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Spain and Great Britain in 1763...
. The war took place variously in Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
, New Hampshire
Province of New Hampshire
The Province of New Hampshire is a name first given in 1629 to the territory between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers on the eastern coast of North America. It was formally organized as an English royal colony on October 7, 1691, during the period of English colonization...
, and Massachusetts
Province of Massachusetts Bay
The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in North America. It was chartered on October 7, 1691 by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England and Scotland...
(which included present-day Maine
Maine
Maine is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and south, New Hampshire to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Quebec to the northwest and New Brunswick to the northeast. Maine is both the northernmost and easternmost...
and Vermont
Vermont
Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state ranks 43rd in land area, , and 45th in total area. Its population according to the 2010 census, 630,337, is the second smallest in the country, larger only than Wyoming. It is the only New England...
). The root cause of the conflict was tension over the ownership of these regions.
The treaty that ended the war marked a significant shift in European relations with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be negotiated with the region's indigenous inhabitants.
The war was commemorated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include "Paul Revere's Ride", The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline...
with his poem, "The Battle of Lovells Pond", and by Nathaniel Hawthorne
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Nathaniel Hawthorne was an American novelist and short story writer.Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in 1804 in the city of Salem, Massachusetts to Nathaniel Hathorne and the former Elizabeth Clarke Manning. His ancestors include John Hathorne, a judge during the Salem Witch Trials...
with his story, "Roger Malvin's Burial
Roger Malvin's Burial
"Roger Malvin's Burial" is one of the lesser known short stories by Nathaniel Hawthorne, included in the collection Mosses from an Old Manse...
".
Historical context
The war occurred as a result of an expansion of New England settlements along the Kennebec RiverKennebec River
The Kennebec River is a river that is entirely within the U.S. state of Maine. It rises in Moosehead Lake in west-central Maine. The East and West Outlets join at Indian Pond and the river then flows southward...
(in present-day Maine) and of the movement of more New England fishermen into Nova Scotia waters (particularly at Canso
Canso, Nova Scotia
For the headland, see Cape Canso.Canso is a small Canadian town in Guysborough County, on the north-eastern tip of mainland Nova Scotia, next to Chedabucto Bay. The area was established in 1604, along with Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The British construction of a fort in the village , was instrumental...
). The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht
Treaty of Utrecht
The Treaty of Utrecht, which established the Peace of Utrecht, comprises a series of individual peace treaties, rather than a single document, signed by the belligerents in the War of Spanish Succession, in the Dutch city of Utrecht in March and April 1713...
, which ended Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War , as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession was known in the British colonies, was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought between France and England, later Great Britain, in North America for control of the continent. The War of the...
, had facilitated this expansion. The treaty, however, had been signed in Europe and had not involved any member of the Wabanaki natives. None had been consulted, and they protested through raids on British fishermen and settlements. For the first and only time, Wabanaki would fight New Englanders and the British on their own terms and for their own reasons and not principally to defend French imperial interests. In response to Wabanaki hostilities toward the expansion, the governor of Nova Scotia, Richard Phillips
Richard Phillips
Richard Phillips may refer to*Richard Phillips , artist from the United States*Richard Phillips , captain of the MV Maersk Alabama taken hostage by Somali pirates in April 2009...
, built a fort in traditional Mi'kmaq territory at Canso
Canso, Nova Scotia
For the headland, see Cape Canso.Canso is a small Canadian town in Guysborough County, on the north-eastern tip of mainland Nova Scotia, next to Chedabucto Bay. The area was established in 1604, along with Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The British construction of a fort in the village , was instrumental...
in 1720, and Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute
Samuel Shute
Samuel Shute was a military officer and royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. After serving in the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, he was appointed by King George I as governor of Massachusetts in 1716...
built forts on traditional Abenaki territory around the mouth of the Kennebec River: Fort George
Fort George (Maine)
Fort George was a colonial era fort, erected in 1715, that was located in Brunswick, when Maine was under jurisdiction of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.-History:...
at Brunswick
Brunswick, Maine
Brunswick is a town in Cumberland County, Maine, United States. The population was 20,278 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Portland-South Portland-Biddeford metropolitan area. Brunswick is home to Bowdoin College, the Bowdoin College Museum of Art, the Peary-MacMillan Arctic Museum, , and the...
(1715); St. George's Fort at Thomaston
Thomaston, Maine
Thomaston, Maine is a town on the coast of Maine the United States. The name may also refer to:*Thomaston , Maine, a census-designated place comprising the center of the town*South Thomaston, Maine, an adjacent town...
(1720); and Fort Richmond (1721) at Richmond
Richmond, Maine
Richmond is a town in Sagadahoc County, Maine, United States. The population was 3,298 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford, Maine metropolitan statistical area....
. The French claimed the same territory on the Kennebec River by building churches in the Abenaki villages of Norridgewock
Norridgewock
The Norridgewock were a band of the Abenaki Native Americans/First Nations, an Eastern Algonquian tribe of the United States and Canada. The tribe occupied an area in Maine to the west and northwest of the Penawapskewi tribe, which was located on the western bank of the Penobscot River...
and Medoctec further upriver.
These fortifications escalated the conflict. A Jesuit missionary
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
named Sébastien Rale
Sébastien Rale
Sébastien Rale, , , was a Jesuit missionary and lexicographer who worked among the eastern Abenaki people, but became caught up in political and military struggles between New France, New England and the natives, which would claim his life during Dummer's War.-Early years:Born in Pontarlier, France,...
(also spelled Rasles) was stationed at Norridgewock, while an Abenaki named Gray Lock
Gray Lock
Chief Gray Lock , was a Western Abenaki Missisquoi chief of Woronoco/Pocumtuck ancestry. Gray Lock was born near Westfield, Massachusetts, around 1670...
led raids against the encroaching New England settlements. In the fall of 1721, the Abenakis burned the farms and killed livestock in the settlements around Casco Bay
Casco Bay
Casco Bay is an inlet of the Gulf of Maine on the southern coast of Maine, New England, United States. Its easternmost approach is Cape Small and its westernmost approach is Two Lights in Cape Elizabeth...
.
]
Governor Shute chose to launch a punitive expedition against Father Rale at Norridgewock in March 1722. While the New England Rangers
United States Army Rangers
United States Army Rangers are elite members of the United States Army. Rangers have served in recognized U.S. Army Ranger units or have graduated from the U.S. Army's Ranger School...
were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, they plundered the church and Rale's cabin. While most of the tribe was away hunting, 300 soldiers under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook
Thomas Westbrook
Colonel Thomas Westbrook was a military figure in colonial America. The City of Westbrook, Maine is named after him. Thomas Westbrook's varied career included the role of senior New England militia officer in Maine. He was active during the French and Indian Wars...
surrounded Norridgewock to capture Rale, but again he was forewarned and escaped into the forest. Found among the priest's possessions, however, was his strongbox with a hidden compartment containing letters implicating Rale as an agent of the French government, promising Indians enough ammunition to drive the English from their settlements.
In response, on June 13, the Abenakis raided Brunswick
Brunswick, Maine
Brunswick is a town in Cumberland County, Maine, United States. The population was 20,278 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Portland-South Portland-Biddeford metropolitan area. Brunswick is home to Bowdoin College, the Bowdoin College Museum of Art, the Peary-MacMillan Arctic Museum, , and the...
, a British settlement at Merrymeeting Bay
Merrymeeting Bay
Merrymeeting Bay is a large freshwater tidal bay in Sagadahoc, Lincoln, and Cumberland counties, in the U.S. state of Maine. Merrymeeting Bay's unusual geography defies common landform terms. It is not what is usually meant by the word bay. It is somewhat like an estuary except for being fresh...
near the mouth of the Kennebec River. In early July 1722, 500-600 natives laid siege to Fort St. Georges at Thomaston
Thomaston, Maine
Thomaston, Maine is a town on the coast of Maine the United States. The name may also refer to:*Thomaston , Maine, a census-designated place comprising the center of the town*South Thomaston, Maine, an adjacent town...
for twelve days. Five New Englanders were killed, as were twenty natives. Following this raid, Brunswick was raided again and burned.
In Nova Scotia, the Mi'kmaq raided the new fort at Canso (1720). Under potential siege, in May 1722, Lieutenant Governor John Doucett
John Doucett
John Doucett was probably of French descent although he did not speak the language and was likely born in England. He was a career military man and, from 1702 on, received several promotions....
took 22 Mi'kmaq hostage at Annapolis Royal
Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia
Annapolis Royal is a town located in the western part of Annapolis County, Nova Scotia. Known as Port Royal until the Conquest of Acadia in 1710 by Britain, the town is the oldest continuous European settlement in North America, north of St...
to prevent the capital from being attacked. In July 1722 the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq blockaded Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving the capital. The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners from present-day Cape Sable Island to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels from the Bay of Fundy
Bay of Fundy
The Bay of Fundy is a bay on the Atlantic coast of North America, on the northeast end of the Gulf of Maine between the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, with a small portion touching the U.S. state of Maine...
.
As a result of the escalating conflict, Massachusetts Governor Shute officially declared war on the Abenaki on July 25, 1722. Shute, who had ongoing political disputes with the Massachusetts assembly, abruptly sailed for England on January 1, 1723, leaving Lieutenant Governor William Dummer
William Dummer
William Dummer was Acting Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 1723 to 1728.-Family:Dummer was born in Boston and died in Newbury, Massachusetts, the son of Jeremiah Dummer, the first American born silversmith, and Anna Atwater...
to manage Massachusetts involvement in the war.
Battle at Georgetown (1722)
On September 10, 1722, 400 or 500 St. Francois and Mi'kmaq Indians fell upon ArrowsickArrowsic, Maine
Arrowsic is a town in Sagadahoc County, Maine, United States. The population was 477 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford, Maine metropolitan statistical area. During the French and Indian Wars, Arrowsic was site of a succession of important and...
, Georgetown, Maine
Georgetown, Maine
Georgetown is a town in Sagadahoc County, Maine, United States. The population was 1,020 at the 2000 census. Home to Reid State Park, the town is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford, Maine Metropolitan Statistical Area...
. Captain Penhallow discharged musketry from a small guard, wounding three of the Indians and killing another. This defense gave the inhabitants of the village time to retreat into the fort. In full possession of the undefended village, the Indians killed fifty head of cattle and set fire to twenty-six houses outside the fort. The Indians then assaulted the fort, killing one New Englander, but otherwise making little impression.
That night Col. Walton and Capt. Harman arrived with thirty men, to which were joined about forty men from the fort under Captains Penhallow and Temple. The combined force of seventy men attacked the natives but were overwhelmed by their numbers. The New Englanders then retreated back into the fort. Viewing further attacks on the fort as useless, the Indians eventually retired up the river. During their return to Norridgewock the natives attacked Fort Richmond.
1723 campaign
On March 9, 1723, Colonel Thomas Westbrook led 230 men to the Penobscot RiverPenobscot River
The Penobscot River is a river in the U.S. state of Maine. Including the river's West Branch and South Branch increases the Penobscot's length to , making it the second longest river system in Maine and the longest entirely in the state. Its drainage basin contains .It arises from four branches...
and traveled approximately 32 miles (51.5 km) upstream to present-day Old Town, Maine
Old Town, Maine
Old Town is a city in Penobscot County, Maine, United States. The population was 7,840 at the 2010 census. The city's developed area is chiefly located on a relatively large island, though its boundaries extend beyond that...
, next to the Indian Island
Penobscot Indian Island Reservation
Penobscot Indian Island Reservation is an Indian reservation for the Penobscot tribe in Penobscot County, Maine, United States near Old Town. The population was 562 at the 2000 census. A small, uninhabited part of the reservation is in Aroostook County. The reservation is home to a small museum, as...
. They marched through the woods for days and found a large native fort—70 yard by 50 yard, with 14 feet (4.3 m) walls surrounding 23 wigwams. There was also a large chapel (60 by 30 feet). The village was vacant of people, and the soldiers burned it to the ground.
Throughout 1723 there were fourteen native raids on the Protestant settlements, primarily in present-day Maine. In April 1723, there was a raid on Falmouth
Falmouth, Maine
Falmouth is a town in Cumberland County, Maine, United States. The population was 11,185 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford, Maine metropolitan statistical area....
in which the raiders mistook Chubb to be Captain Harmen and killed him. On April 19, 1723, Scarborough was raided, in which Roger Deering, his wife, two other inhabitants, and two soldiers were killed. Taken captive were three adults and three of Deering's children.
In May 1723, the natives killed two people in a raid on Berwick, one at Wells
Wells, Maine
Wells is a town in York County, Maine, United States. Founded in 1643, it is the third-oldest town in Maine. The population was 9,400 at the 2000 census. Wells Beach is a popular summer destination.-History:...
and two on the way to York
York, Maine
York is a town in York County, Maine, United States at the southwest corner of the state. The population in the 2000 census was 12,854. Situated beside the Atlantic Ocean on the Gulf of Maine, York is a well-known summer resort. It is home to three 18-hole golf clubs, three sandy beaches, and...
.
On August 13, 1723 Gray Lock raided Northfield, Massachusetts
Northfield, Massachusetts
Northfield is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 2,951 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area...
, and four warriors killed two citizens near Northfield. The next day they attacked Joseph Stevens and his four sons in Rutland
Rutland, Massachusetts
Rutland is a town in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 7,973 at the 2010 census. Worcester County's only buffalo herd is located in Rutland, at Alta Vista Farm...
. Stevens escaped, two boys were killed, and the other two sons were captured. In August and September 1723, there were also raids on Saco, Maine
Saco, Maine
Saco is a city in York County, Maine, United States. The population was 18,482 at the 2010 census. It is home to Ferry Beach State Park, Funtown Splashtown USA, Thornton Academy, as well as General Dynamics Armament Systems , a subsidiary of the defense contractor General Dynamics...
and Dover, New Hampshire
Dover, New Hampshire
Dover is a city in Strafford County, New Hampshire, in the United States of America. The population was 29,987 at the 2010 census, the largest in the New Hampshire Seacoast region...
. Captain Heath and 13 men including two Mohawks met with 30 natives in the battle at Richmond, Maine
Richmond, Maine
Richmond is a town in Sagadahoc County, Maine, United States. The population was 3,298 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford, Maine metropolitan statistical area....
. They killed two and drove off the rest. One New Englander was killed and two wounded.
On October 9, 1723, Grey Lock struck two small forts near Northfield, inflicting casualties and carrying off one captive. In response, Fort Dummer
Fort Dummer
Fort Dummer was a British fort built in 1724 by the colonial militia of the Province of Massachusetts Bay under the command of Lieutenant Timothy Dwight in what is now the Town of Brattleboro in southeastern Vermont. The fort was the first permanent European settlement in Vermont...
was built near Brattleboro, Vermont
Brattleboro, Vermont
Brattleboro, originally Brattleborough, is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States, located in the southeast corner of the state, along the state line with New Hampshire. The population was 12,046 at the 2010 census...
. The fort became a major base of operations for scouting and punitive expeditions into Abenaki country.
In an October raid at Mount Desert
Mount Desert Island
Mount Desert Island , in Hancock County, Maine, is the largest island off the coast of Maine. With an area of it is the 6th largest island in the contiguous United States. Though it is often claimed to be the third largest island on the eastern seaboard of the United States, it is actually second...
, one Capt. Cogswell and his crew were surprised and taken as they were stepping ashore; and about the same time, Smith and Bailey were killed at Cape Porpoise
Cape Porpoise, Maine
Cape Porpoise, Maine is a small coastal village in the town of Kennebunkport, Maine, United States, and was the original English settlement of the town. It is northeast of Dock Square and southwest of Goose Rocks Beach. The village occupies the mainland adjacent to Cape Porpoise Harbor...
, one on Vaughan's Island, and the other on the seashore, not far from the site of the old meeting-house.
On December 25, 1723, 60 natives laid siege to St. Georges fort at Thomaston, Maine
Thomaston, Maine
Thomaston, Maine is a town on the coast of Maine the United States. The name may also refer to:*Thomaston , Maine, a census-designated place comprising the center of the town*South Thomaston, Maine, an adjacent town...
for thirty days. But Capt. Kennedy, the commanding officer, held out till Col. Thomas Westbrook
Thomas Westbrook
Colonel Thomas Westbrook was a military figure in colonial America. The City of Westbrook, Maine is named after him. Thomas Westbrook's varied career included the role of senior New England militia officer in Maine. He was active during the French and Indian Wars...
arrived and put the enemy to flight. The Indians killed another man, Reverend Willard.
1724 campaign
During the spring of 1724, primarily in present-day Maine, natives killed, wounded or imprisoned over 30 New Englanders in ten raids. On March 23, the fort at Cape Porpoise was attacked and a sergeant was killed. On April 17 a farmer was killed at Black Point, while his two sons were imprisoned at Norridgewock. In Kennebunk harborKennebunkport, Maine
Kennebunkport is a town in York County, Maine, United States. The population was 3,720 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Portland–South Portland–Biddeford metropolitan statistical area....
, a sloop was taken, and the whole crew was put to death. About the same time, three men were killed at a saw-mill on the same river.
At Berwick in May, a father was killed, one of his children was imprisoned, and the other escaped being scalped but was seriously wounded. Another man also survived a scalping attempt although his body was badly mangled. One other person was killed. On May 1, 1724, on the St. Georges river
Saint George River
The Saint George River is a river in Maine with a watershed of in a unique and historic area of mountains, sea coast, lakes, tidal streams and inlets. The origin of the Saint George River is the outflow of Saint George Lake in Liberty...
Captain Josiah Winslow and thirteen men were ambushed by over 90 natives in 30 canoes. The native Tarrantines were reported to have lost over 25 warriors.
On May 27 at Purpooduck, the natives killed one man and wounded another. On the same day, a man was killed at Saco.
On June 18, 1724 Grey Lock attacked a group of men working in a meadow near Hatfield, Massachusetts
Hatfield, Massachusetts
Hatfield is a town in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 3,249 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area....
. Grey Lock retired from the area and killed men at Deerfield
Deerfield, Massachusetts
Deerfield is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 4,750 as of the 2000 census. Deerfield is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area in Western Massachusetts, lying only north of the city of Springfield.Deerfield includes the...
, Northfield
Northfield, Massachusetts
Northfield is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 2,951 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area...
, and Westfield
Westfield, Massachusetts
Westfield is a city in Hampden County, in the Pioneer Valley of western Massachusetts, United States. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 41,094 at the 2010 census. The ZIP Code is 01085 for homes and businesses, 01086 for Westfield State...
over the summer. In response to the raids, Dummer ordered more soldiers for Northfield, Brookfield
Brookfield, Massachusetts
Brookfield is a town in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 3,390 at the 2010 census.-History:Brookfield was first settled in 1660 and was officially incorporated in 1718...
, Deerfield and Sunderland
Sunderland, Massachusetts
Sunderland is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, part of the Pioneer Valley. The population was 3,777 as of the 2000 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area....
.
On July 17 at Spurwick, one New Englander was killed and one native.
During this campaign, assisted by the Mi'kmaq from Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, the natives also engaged in a naval campaign. In just a few weeks they had captured twenty-two vessels, killing 22 New Englanders and taking more prisoner (p. 127). They also made an unsuccessful siege of St. George's Fort.
To defend against Gray Lock attacks at Northfield and Rutland
Rutland, Massachusetts
Rutland is a town in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 7,973 at the 2010 census. Worcester County's only buffalo herd is located in Rutland, at Alta Vista Farm...
, the English built Fort Dummer
Fort Dummer
Fort Dummer was a British fort built in 1724 by the colonial militia of the Province of Massachusetts Bay under the command of Lieutenant Timothy Dwight in what is now the Town of Brattleboro in southeastern Vermont. The fort was the first permanent European settlement in Vermont...
, near present-day Brattleboro, Vermont
Brattleboro, Vermont
Brattleboro, originally Brattleborough, is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States, located in the southeast corner of the state, along the state line with New Hampshire. The population was 12,046 at the 2010 census...
, in 1724.
Battle of Norridgewock
In the second half of 1724, the New Englanders launched an aggressive campaign up the KennebecKennebec River
The Kennebec River is a river that is entirely within the U.S. state of Maine. It rises in Moosehead Lake in west-central Maine. The East and West Outlets join at Indian Pond and the river then flows southward...
and Penobscot
Penobscot River
The Penobscot River is a river in the U.S. state of Maine. Including the river's West Branch and South Branch increases the Penobscot's length to , making it the second longest river system in Maine and the longest entirely in the state. Its drainage basin contains .It arises from four branches...
rivers. Never before had the New Englanders been so successful in penetrating Abenaki lands.
On August 22, 1724, Captains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon led 200 rangers
United States Army Rangers
United States Army Rangers are elite members of the United States Army. Rangers have served in recognized U.S. Army Ranger units or have graduated from the U.S. Army's Ranger School...
to the main Abenaki village on the Kennebec River, Norridgewock, Maine, to kill Father Sébastien Rale
Sébastien Rale
Sébastien Rale, , , was a Jesuit missionary and lexicographer who worked among the eastern Abenaki people, but became caught up in political and military struggles between New France, New England and the natives, which would claim his life during Dummer's War.-Early years:Born in Pontarlier, France,...
and destroy the settlement. There were 160 Abenaki, many of whom chose to flee rather than fight. At least 31 chose to fight, which allowed the others to escape. Most of the defenders were killed. Rale was killed in the opening moments of the battle, a leading chief was killed, and the rangers massacred nearly two dozen women and children. The English had casualties of two militiamen and one Mohawk. Harmon destroyed the Abenaki farms, and those who had escaped were forced to abandon their village and moved northward to the Abenaki village of Odanak, Quebec
Odanak, Quebec
Odanak is an Indian reserve in the Centre-du-Québec region, Quebec, Canada. The mostly Abenaki population as of the Canada 2006 Census was 469. The territory is located near the mouth of the Saint-François River at its confluence with the St. Lawrence River. It is partly within the limits of...
.
After Norridgewock, the natives settled at St. Francis and Becancour.
Raid on Winnipiscogee Lake
On December 10, 1724, Captain John LovewellJohn Lovewell (Junior)
John Lovewell was a famous Ranger in the 18th century who fought during Dummer's War . He lived in present-day Nashua, New Hampshire...
along with a company of rangers killed two Abenakis.
Lovewell and his militia company (often called "snowshoe men") of 30 men left Dunstable, New Hampshire
Dunstable, New Hampshire
Dunstable, New Hampshire was a town located in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, that is now the city of Nashua.The town was originally part of Dunstable, Massachusetts, which was incorporated in 1673...
on their first expedition in December of 1724, trekking to the north of Lake Winnipesaukee
Lake Winnipesaukee
Lake Winnipesaukee is the largest lake in the U.S. state of New Hampshire. It is approximately long and from wide , covering — when Paugus Bay is included—with a maximum depth of ....
("Winnipiscogee Lake") into the White Mountains
White Mountains (New Hampshire)
The White Mountains are a mountain range covering about a quarter of the state of New Hampshire and a small portion of western Maine in the United States. Part of the Appalachian Mountains, they are considered the most rugged mountains in New England...
of New Hampshire
New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian...
. On December 19, 40 miles (64.4 km) north of Winnipesaukee, the troop came upon a wigwam
Wigwam
A wigwam or wickiup is a domed room dwelling used by certain Native American tribes. The term wickiup is generally used to label these kinds of dwellings in American Southwest and West. Wigwam is usually applied to these structures in the American Northeast...
, where they killed and scalped
Scalping
Scalping is the act of removing another person's scalp or a portion of their scalp, either from a dead body or from a living person. The initial purpose of scalping was to provide a trophy of battle or portable proof of a combatant's prowess in war...
an Abenaki man and took an Abenaki boy captive in response to the abduction of two men from Dunstable and the ambush and killing of eight others by Abenaki warriors. The company was paid 200 pound
Pound (currency)
The pound is a unit of currency in some nations. The term originated in England as the value of a pound of silver.The word pound is the English translation of the Latin word libra, which was the unit of account of the Roman Empire...
s for the scalp (150 pounds plus 50 pounds over and above).
Battle of Wakefield
In February 1725, Lovewell made a second expedition to the area and killed another ten Indians near Lake Winnipesaukee.On February 20 they came across a recently inhabited wigwam and followed tracks for some five miles. On the banks of a pond at the head of the Salmon Falls River
Salmon Falls River
The Salmon Falls River is a tributary of the Piscataqua River in the U.S. states of Maine and New Hampshire. It rises at Great East Lake and flows south-southeast for approximately , forming the border between Maine and New Hampshire....
in the present town of Wakefield, New Hampshire
Wakefield, New Hampshire
Wakefield is a town in Carroll County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 5,078 at the 2010 census. The town includes the villages of Wakefield Corner , East Wakefield, North Wakefield, Sanbornville, Union, Woodman and Province Lake...
they came upon more wigwams with smoke rising from them. Some time after 2:00 AM Lovewell gave the order to fire. A short time later ten Indians
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
lay dead. The Indians were said to have had numerous extra blanket
Blanket
A blanket is a type of bedding, generally speaking, a large piece of cloth, intended to keep the user warm, especially while sleeping. Blankets are distinguished from sheets by their thickness and purpose; the thickest sheet is still thinner than the lightest blanket. Blankets are generally used...
s, snowshoe
Snowshoe
A snowshoe is footwear for walking over the snow. Snowshoes work by distributing the weight of the person over a larger area so that the person's foot does not sink completely into the snow, a quality called "flotation"....
s, moccasins
Moccasin (footwear)
A moccasin is a slipper made of deerskin or other soft leather, consisting of a sole and sides made of one piece of leather, stitched together at the top, and sometimes with a vamp . Though sometimes worn inside, it is chiefly intended for outdoor use, as in exploring wildernesses and running from...
, a few furs
Fur clothing
Fur clothing is clothing made of the fur of animals. Fur is one of the oldest forms of clothing; thought to have been widely used as hominids first expanded outside of Africa. Some view fur as luxurious and warm; others reject it due to moral beliefs...
and new French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
musket
Musket
A musket is a muzzle-loaded, smooth bore long gun, fired from the shoulder. Muskets were designed for use by infantry. A soldier armed with a musket had the designation musketman or musketeer....
s, which would seem to indicate that they were on their way to attack frontier settlements. Preventing such an attack is probably the true success of this expedition.
Early in March Lovewell's troops arrived in Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
. They paraded their Indian scalps through the streets, Lovewell himself wearing a wig made of Indian scalps. The bounty paid was 1000 pounds (100 per scalp).
Raid on Fryeburg
During his last expedition, Lovewell died in a fight against the PequawketPequawket
The Pequawket are a Native American subdivision of the Abenaki people who formerly lived near the headwaters of the Saco River in Carroll County, New Hampshire and Oxford County, Maine...
tribe at Fryeburg, Maine, on May 8, 1725.
The third expedition consisted of only 46 men and left from Dunstable on April 16, 1725. They built a fort at Ossipee
Ossipee, New Hampshire
Ossipee is a town in Carroll County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 4,345 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Carroll County...
and left 10 men, including the doctor and John Goffe
John Goffe
John Goffe was a Colonial American soldier...
, to garrison the fort while the rest left to raid the Abenaki town of Pequawket, now Fryeburg. On May 9, as the militiamen were being led in prayer by chaplain
Chaplain
Traditionally, a chaplain is a minister in a specialized setting such as a priest, pastor, rabbi, or imam or lay representative of a religion attached to a secular institution such as a hospital, prison, military unit, police department, university, or private chapel...
Jonathan Frye, a lone Abenaki warrior was spotted. Lovewell's men waited until the warrior was close and fired at him but missed. The Abenaki returned fire, killing Lovewell. Ensign
Ensign (rank)
Ensign is a junior rank of a commissioned officer in the armed forces of some countries, normally in the infantry or navy. As the junior officer in an infantry regiment was traditionally the carrier of the ensign flag, the rank itself acquired the name....
Seth Wyman, Lovewell's second in command, killed the warrior with the next shot. Chaplain Frye then scalped the dead Indian. The militia had left their packs a ways back so as to be unencumbered by them in battle. Two returning war parties of Abenaki led by Paugus and Nat found them and waited in ambush for the returning militia. Eight men were killed in the first volley by the Indian warriors. The battle continued for more than 10 hours until Ensign Wyman killed the Indian war chief Paugus. With the death of Paugus the rest of the Indians soon vanished into the forest. Only 20 of the militiamen survived the battle; three died on the retreat home. The Abenaki losses except for Paugus are unknown. The Abenaki deserted the town of Pequawket after the battle and fled to Canada
Canada, New France
Canada was the name of the French colony that once stretched along the St. Lawrence River; the other colonies of New France were Acadia, Louisiana and Newfoundland. Canada, the most developed colony of New France, was divided into three districts, each with its own government: Quebec,...
.
In September 1725, a scouting party of six men was sent out from Fort Dummer. Grey Lock and 14 others ambushed them just west of the Connecticut River – killing two and wounding and capturing three others. One man escaped, while two Indians were killed.
Nova Scotia theatre
The first battle of Dummer's War happened in the Nova Scotia theatre. In response to the blockade of Annapolis Royal, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade at the end of July 1722, and retrieved over 86 New England prisoners taken by the natives. One of these operations resulted in the Battle at Winnepang (Jeddore Harbour)Battle at Winnepang (Jeddore Harbour)
The Battle at Winnepang occurred during Dummer's War when New England forces attacked Mi’kmaq at present day Jeddore Harbour, Nova Scotia. The naval battle was part of a campaign ordered by Governor Phillips to retrieve over 82 New England prisoners taken by the Mi'kmaq in fishing vessels off...
, in which 35 natives and five New Englanders were killed. Only five native bodies were recovered from the battle, and the New Englanders decapitated the corpses and set the severed heads on pikes surrounding Canso's new fort.
In 1723, the village of Canso was raided again by the Mi'kmaq, who killed five fishermen. In this same year, the New Englanders built a twelve-gun blockhouse to guard the village and fishery.
The worst moment of the war for Annapolis Royal came on 4 July 1724 when a group of sixty Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided the capital. They killed and scalped a sergeant and a private, wounded four more soldiers, and terrorized the village. They also burned houses and took prisoners. The British responded by executing one of the Mi'kmaq hostages on the same spot the sergeant was killed. They also burned three Acadian houses in retaliation. As a result of the raid, three blockhouses were built to protect the town. The Acadian church was moved closer to the fort so that it could be more easily monitored.
In 1725, sixty Abenakis and Mi'kmaq launch another attack on Canso
Canso, Nova Scotia
For the headland, see Cape Canso.Canso is a small Canadian town in Guysborough County, on the north-eastern tip of mainland Nova Scotia, next to Chedabucto Bay. The area was established in 1604, along with Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The British construction of a fort in the village , was instrumental...
destroying two houses and killing six people.
Aftermath
On 31 July 1725, Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Dummer announced a cessation of arms. Negotiations began in Boston on 11 November, and peace treaties were signed in Maine on 15 December 1725 and on 15 June 1726 in Nova Scotia.Unlike the Abenaki in Maine, the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet of Nova Scotia refused to declare themselves British subjects. The war had been as much a native victory as it was a British one. The British were forced to acknowledge that the natives had a right to possess their land.
The goal of the colonies was less the defeat of the aboriginal populations than influencing the Wabanaki to become allies of the British king and enemies of the French.
The peace in Nova Scotia would last for eighteen years.
External links
- A Military History of the United States of America: Dummer's War, 1724-1725 at Motherbedford.com
- Facts about the History of Vermont at Facts-about.org.uk
- Fort Dummer State Park, Vermont State Parks Bureau
- Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Richelieu River History Timeline; Part 1 - New France and New England: Discovery and Exploration, Time Span 1609-1645, James P. Millard, Historiclakes.org