Interpretations of Weber's liberalism
Encyclopedia
There are varying interpretations of Max Weber's liberalism due to his well known sociological
achievements. Max Weber
is considered an eminent founder of modern social sciences
, rivaled by the figures of Émile Durkheim
and Karl Marx
. Some students of Weberian thought have paid less attention to Weber's extensive and often passionate engagement with the politics of his day, particularly in the United States. However, European intellectuals have given more attention to his political thought. Most of Weber's political writings have not been published in translation, or have been translated only recently in a piecemeal form.
for decades. His conception of democracy
has been the subject of particularly heated debate. Weber rejected the Wilhelmine regime's authoritarian political structure. He advocated parliamentary and democratic reform. Weber championed the freedoms of what he called the "age of the Rights of Man
". Some find the liberalism of Weber as problematic.
Raymond Aron
has noted that Weber was not a "liberal in the American sense," and not, "strictly speaking, a democrat in the sense that the French, the English, or the Americans gave the term." Aron saw Weber to have looked to place the "glory of the nation
and the power
of the state
" above all other things.
Stephen P. Turner and Regis A. Factor have concluded that Weber rejected the philosophical basis for most Western formulations of Enlightenment
liberalism
. Weber conceived "parliamentarization" primarily for selecting leaders. Weber was strongly technocratic.
, the SPD
party paper. He was a target of Nazi
persecution, from which he escaped to England. There he became involved with the Labour Party
and was a member of the faculty at the London School of Economics
during the last part of the Second World War.
Mayer labeled Weber's philosophy as the "new Machiavellianism
of the steel age." The conception of the state
that Weber supported was viewed as a middle phase in a destructive tradition of German realpolitik
- a tradition that Mayer saw to extend from Bismarck
to Hitler. Mayer interpreted a "tragic" satisfaction with which Weber was seen to embrace "the empty character" of Heinrich Rickert
's neo-Kant
ian philosophy of value. Mayer viewed Weber's value theory as a nihilistic contribution to the rise of National Socialism.
Wolfgang J. Mommsen initiated debate by arguing this in the 1959 German publication of Max Weber and German Politics 1890-1920. Mommsen questioned the sociologist's liberal reputation. According to Mommsen, Weber's sociological idea of charismatic authority
was evident in his political views, and was "close to fascist
notions of plebiscitary leadership." Mommsen wrote that Weber's theory of democracy "lent itself all too readily to an authoritarian reinterpretation" Mommsen also associated Weber with the rise of Hitler: "Weber's teachings concerning charismatic leadership coupled with the radical formulation of the meaning of democratic institutions, contributed to making the German people inwardly ready to acclaim the leadership position of Adolf Hitler
."
Max Weber's call for the democratic reform of the Wilhelmine state, and his involvement in the drafting of the Weimar Constitution
, had led German intellectuals in the 1950s to consider him as an authority who could justify the democratic character of the new Federal Republic of Germany. Mommsen's thesis, that Max Weber supported parliamentary democracy as a means to serve the power interests of the German nation-state, met a sharp response, because, in Raymond Aron
's words, this removed "the new German democracy of a 'founding father,' a glorious ancestor, and a spokesman of genius."
, and Karl Loewenstein
have defended Weberian sociology by arguing that it stands separate from his political convictions. They consider Weber's distinction between scientific value-neutrality and evaluative politics to support this claim. In their view, Weber's politics should be interpreted as separate from the interpretation of his sociology. This idea was rejected by Mommsen.
Mommsen wrote of continuities between Weber's "value-neutral" sociology and his "evaluative" politics. The second edition of Max Weber and German Politics 1890-1920 argued that "values and science
, in Weber's thought, were interdependent." Critics were dismissed as attempting "to shield Max Weber's sociological works against any possible criticism based on political aspects." Günther Roth responded in a 1965 American sociological journal, stating that Weber was a major target for a series of critiques aimed at political sociology
in general, if not at most of social science. Roth also stated that Mommsen was removed from the interest of American sociologists in Weber, and his treatment becomes questionable when he interprets Weber's sociological analysis as political ideology. Roth stated that his "major intent" was "not to provide an historical defense of Weber but a review of critiques as they seem to bear on the raison d'etre of political sociology
." He claimed that Weber "must appear relativist and Machiavellian to all those who, for ideological reasons, cannot recognize any dividing line between political sociology
and political ideology. Weber emphatically insisted on such a distinction, while his critics refuse to distinguish between his scholarship
and his politics
."
Raymond Aron
did not consider Weber's sociology to stand above politics. He viewed Weber, in both politics and sociology, to be a typical "power-politician." Aron wrote in 1971 that Weber "belongs to the posterity of Machiavelli as much as to the contemporaries of Nietzsche
," and that "the struggle for power between classes and individuals" seemed to Weber as the "essence" of politics.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
achievements. Max Weber
Max Weber
Karl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself...
is considered an eminent founder of modern social sciences
Social sciences
Social science is the field of study concerned with society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences usually exclusive of the administrative or managerial sciences...
, rivaled by the figures of Émile Durkheim
Émile Durkheim
David Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist. He formally established the academic discipline and, with Karl Marx and Max Weber, is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science and father of sociology.Much of Durkheim's work was concerned with how societies could maintain...
and Karl Marx
Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement...
. Some students of Weberian thought have paid less attention to Weber's extensive and often passionate engagement with the politics of his day, particularly in the United States. However, European intellectuals have given more attention to his political thought. Most of Weber's political writings have not been published in translation, or have been translated only recently in a piecemeal form.
Overview
Weber's political ideas have inspired disagreement in GermanyGermany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
for decades. His conception of democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
has been the subject of particularly heated debate. Weber rejected the Wilhelmine regime's authoritarian political structure. He advocated parliamentary and democratic reform. Weber championed the freedoms of what he called the "age of the Rights of Man
Rights of Man
Rights of Man , a book by Thomas Paine, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard its people, their natural rights, and their national interests. Using these points as a base it defends the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's attack in...
". Some find the liberalism of Weber as problematic.
Raymond Aron
Raymond Aron
Raymond-Claude-Ferdinand Aron was a French philosopher, sociologist, journalist and political scientist.He is best known for his 1955 book The Opium of the Intellectuals, the title of which inverts Karl Marx's claim that religion was the opium of the people -- in contrast, Aron argued that in...
has noted that Weber was not a "liberal in the American sense," and not, "strictly speaking, a democrat in the sense that the French, the English, or the Americans gave the term." Aron saw Weber to have looked to place the "glory of the nation
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
and the power
Political power
Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
of the state
State (polity)
A state is an organized political community, living under a government. States may be sovereign and may enjoy a monopoly on the legal initiation of force and are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union...
" above all other things.
Stephen P. Turner and Regis A. Factor have concluded that Weber rejected the philosophical basis for most Western formulations of Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
liberalism
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
. Weber conceived "parliamentarization" primarily for selecting leaders. Weber was strongly technocratic.
Political views
Jacob Peter Mayer wrote a 1944 critique of Max Weber, entitled Max Weber and German Politics: a study in political sociology. Published in England during the war, this work never appeared in German translation. Mayer had been an archivist for the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and the primary book reviewer for the VorwärtsVorwärts
Vorwärts was the central organ of the Social Democratic Party of Germany published daily in Berlin from 1891 to 1933 by decision of the party's Halle Congress, as the successor of Berliner Volksblatt, founded in 1884....
, the SPD
Social Democratic Party of Germany
The Social Democratic Party of Germany is a social-democratic political party in Germany...
party paper. He was a target of Nazi
Nazism
Nazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
persecution, from which he escaped to England. There he became involved with the Labour Party
Labour Party (UK)
The Labour Party is a centre-left democratic socialist party in the United Kingdom. It surpassed the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s, forming minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929-1931. The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945, after...
and was a member of the faculty at the London School of Economics
London School of Economics
The London School of Economics and Political Science is a public research university specialised in the social sciences located in London, United Kingdom, and a constituent college of the federal University of London...
during the last part of the Second World War.
Mayer labeled Weber's philosophy as the "new Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, "the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct", deriving from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe and other works...
of the steel age." The conception of the state
State (polity)
A state is an organized political community, living under a government. States may be sovereign and may enjoy a monopoly on the legal initiation of force and are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union...
that Weber supported was viewed as a middle phase in a destructive tradition of German realpolitik
Realpolitik
Realpolitik refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and on practical and material factors and considerations, rather than ideological notions or moralistic or ethical premises...
- a tradition that Mayer saw to extend from Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg , simply known as Otto von Bismarck, was a Prussian-German statesman whose actions unified Germany, made it a major player in world affairs, and created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace after 1871.As Minister President of...
to Hitler. Mayer interpreted a "tragic" satisfaction with which Weber was seen to embrace "the empty character" of Heinrich Rickert
Heinrich Rickert
Heinrich John Rickert was a German philosopher, one of the leading Neo-Kantians.-Life:He was born in Danzig, Prussia and died in Heidelberg, Germany.-Thought:...
's neo-Kant
KANT
KANT is a computer algebra system for mathematicians interested in algebraic number theory, performing sophisticated computations in algebraic number fields, in global function fields, and in local fields. KASH is the associated command line interface...
ian philosophy of value. Mayer viewed Weber's value theory as a nihilistic contribution to the rise of National Socialism.
Wolfgang J. Mommsen initiated debate by arguing this in the 1959 German publication of Max Weber and German Politics 1890-1920. Mommsen questioned the sociologist's liberal reputation. According to Mommsen, Weber's sociological idea of charismatic authority
Charismatic authority
The sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority as "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him." Charismatic authority is one of three forms of authority laid out...
was evident in his political views, and was "close to fascist
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
notions of plebiscitary leadership." Mommsen wrote that Weber's theory of democracy "lent itself all too readily to an authoritarian reinterpretation" Mommsen also associated Weber with the rise of Hitler: "Weber's teachings concerning charismatic leadership coupled with the radical formulation of the meaning of democratic institutions, contributed to making the German people inwardly ready to acclaim the leadership position of Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
."
Max Weber's call for the democratic reform of the Wilhelmine state, and his involvement in the drafting of the Weimar Constitution
Weimar constitution
The Constitution of the German Reich , usually known as the Weimar Constitution was the constitution that governed Germany during the Weimar Republic...
, had led German intellectuals in the 1950s to consider him as an authority who could justify the democratic character of the new Federal Republic of Germany. Mommsen's thesis, that Max Weber supported parliamentary democracy as a means to serve the power interests of the German nation-state, met a sharp response, because, in Raymond Aron
Raymond Aron
Raymond-Claude-Ferdinand Aron was a French philosopher, sociologist, journalist and political scientist.He is best known for his 1955 book The Opium of the Intellectuals, the title of which inverts Karl Marx's claim that religion was the opium of the people -- in contrast, Aron argued that in...
's words, this removed "the new German democracy of a 'founding father,' a glorious ancestor, and a spokesman of genius."
Politics and sociology
Weber's political views have been considered to threaten the reputation of his sociology. Günther Roth, Reinhard BendixReinhard Bendix
Reinhard Bendix was a German American sociologist.Born in Berlin, Germany, he briefly belonged to Neu beginnen and Hashomer Hatzair, groups that resisted the Nazis. In 1938 he emigrated to the United States. He received his B.S., M.A., and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, and subsequently...
, and Karl Loewenstein
Karl Loewenstein
Karl Loewenstein was a German philosopher and political scientist, regarded as one of the prominent figures of Constitutional law in the twentieth century....
have defended Weberian sociology by arguing that it stands separate from his political convictions. They consider Weber's distinction between scientific value-neutrality and evaluative politics to support this claim. In their view, Weber's politics should be interpreted as separate from the interpretation of his sociology. This idea was rejected by Mommsen.
Mommsen wrote of continuities between Weber's "value-neutral" sociology and his "evaluative" politics. The second edition of Max Weber and German Politics 1890-1920 argued that "values and science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
, in Weber's thought, were interdependent." Critics were dismissed as attempting "to shield Max Weber's sociological works against any possible criticism based on political aspects." Günther Roth responded in a 1965 American sociological journal, stating that Weber was a major target for a series of critiques aimed at political sociology
Political sociology
Contemporary political sociology involves much more than the study of the relations between state and society . Where a typical research question in political sociology might have been: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?" or even, "What difference does it make if women get elected?" ...
in general, if not at most of social science. Roth also stated that Mommsen was removed from the interest of American sociologists in Weber, and his treatment becomes questionable when he interprets Weber's sociological analysis as political ideology. Roth stated that his "major intent" was "not to provide an historical defense of Weber but a review of critiques as they seem to bear on the raison d'etre of political sociology
Political sociology
Contemporary political sociology involves much more than the study of the relations between state and society . Where a typical research question in political sociology might have been: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?" or even, "What difference does it make if women get elected?" ...
." He claimed that Weber "must appear relativist and Machiavellian to all those who, for ideological reasons, cannot recognize any dividing line between political sociology
Political sociology
Contemporary political sociology involves much more than the study of the relations between state and society . Where a typical research question in political sociology might have been: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?" or even, "What difference does it make if women get elected?" ...
and political ideology. Weber emphatically insisted on such a distinction, while his critics refuse to distinguish between his scholarship
Scholarship
A scholarship is an award of financial aid for a student to further education. Scholarships are awarded on various criteria usually reflecting the values and purposes of the donor or founder of the award.-Types:...
and his politics
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
."
Raymond Aron
Raymond Aron
Raymond-Claude-Ferdinand Aron was a French philosopher, sociologist, journalist and political scientist.He is best known for his 1955 book The Opium of the Intellectuals, the title of which inverts Karl Marx's claim that religion was the opium of the people -- in contrast, Aron argued that in...
did not consider Weber's sociology to stand above politics. He viewed Weber, in both politics and sociology, to be a typical "power-politician." Aron wrote in 1971 that Weber "belongs to the posterity of Machiavelli as much as to the contemporaries of Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a 19th-century German philosopher, poet, composer and classical philologist...
," and that "the struggle for power between classes and individuals" seemed to Weber as the "essence" of politics.