James G. Birney
Encyclopedia
James Gillespie Birney was an abolitionist, politician
and jurist
born in Danville, Kentucky
. From 1816 to 1818, he served in the Kentucky House of Representatives
. In 1836, he started his abolitionist weekly publication in Cincinnati, Ohio
titled The Philanthropist
.
Born to an affluent Irish
Episcopalian slaveholder of the same name in Danville, Kentucky
, James G. Birney lost his mother during his youth. He and his sister were raised by their aunt, who had come over from Scotland
at the request of his father to look after the two. By 1795, his father's two sisters and their families had migrated from Ireland, settling on farms near his home. Most of his mother's relatives had also migrated nearby, settling in other areas of Mercer County, Kentucky
. Growing up, he saw the issue of slavery from a variety of perspectives. Though his father fought to prevent their state of Kentucky from joining the Union as a slave state, when the effort failed, he decided that until the legislature abolished slavery from the state as a whole, a person could own slaves as long as he treated them humanely. Other members of Birney’s family felt personal moral responsibility and refused to own slaves. Most notably, the aunt that raised him did not own slaves and paid them when they performed services for her. For his own part, Birney agreed with his father and received his first slave at age six. However, for much of his youth and education, he was under the influence of teachers and friends with strong anti-slavery views. For example, he attended several sermons given by a Baptist
abolitionist by the name of David Barrow in his youth, which he later recalled with fondness.
When Birney turned eleven he was sent to Transylvania University
in Lexington, Kentucky
, returning home two years later to enter a school run by a Presbyterian man that had just opened in Dansville. He excelled in his studies there, which were mostly based in the sciences. In 1808, he entered the College of New Jersey at age seventeen, which was the name of Princeton University
at that time. He studied political philosophy
, logic
and moral philosophy, and became known as a proficient debater. Among his classmates, he became particularly good friends with George M. Dallas
. He studied under the president of the school (Samuel Stanhope Smith
), who was both a logician and author that held weak anti-slavery sentiments. He believed that slavery was morally wrong, but upheld the citizens' right of ownership. Birney graduated from Princeton on September 26, 1810.
When he returned to Danville following graduation, he worked for the campaign of Henry Clay
for one month. After this, he began to study law
at the office of Alexander J. Dallas
in Philadelphia, the father of his Princeton friend and classmate. He lived among well means, having a horse carriage for transportation and always being well-dressed. He also made friends with members of the local Quaker community. He remained in Philadelphia with Dallas for the next three years, until he passed the Philadelphia bar examination
and was admitted to the bar association
.
for the local bank
. He handled both civil and criminal lawsuits in Danville and other outlying counties of Kentucky
. The economy
of Kentucky was rather poor at this time, as the War of 1812
had caused a schism in trade
within the state. Having trouble making ends meet, Birney made his living at this time primarily as a claims adjuster
.
Following in the footsteps of his father, Birney became a freemason upon his return to Danville and a member of Danville's town council
, making him a "member" of the town's social elite. He also fell in love with Agatha McDowell and married her on February 1, 1816 at a Presbyterian church. Among the wedding gifts the young couple received were slaves from his father and father-in-law
. As Birney had yet to fully develop his abolitionist views, he accepted them kindly. It should be said that later in life Birney was known to say on many occasions that he does not recall ever believing that slavery was right.
In 1815, he again worked for the successful campaign of Henry Clay
, who was running for U.S. Congress. He also campaigned for George Madison
, who was running for Kentucky Governor and won (Madison died months later). His political sentiments at the time were with the Democratic-Republican Party. In 1816, Birney won a seat in the Kentucky General Assembly
representing Mercer County
, becoming a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives
at age twenty-four. In 1817, the Kentucky Senate
drafted a resolution that proposed opening a dialogue between the newly installed governor of Kentucky, Gabriel Slaughter
, and the governors of Ohio
and Indiana
for the purpose of passing laws in those states calling for the capture and return of runaway slaves from Kentucky.
Birney staunchly opposed this resolution and it was defeated, though a new resolution was soon after drafted and passed, despite Birney's opposition yet again. As he saw very little future for himself in Kentucky politics, Birney decided to move to Alabama
with the hope of starting a political career.
In February 1818, he moved his family to Madison County, Alabama
, where he purchased a cotton plantation and slaves, most of whom came with him from Kentucky. In 1819, Birney became a member of the Alabama House of Representatives
representing Madison County. While there, he helped draft an act that would afford slaves tried by jury paid legal counsel, barring the master and prosecutorial witness or their relatives from being members of the jury
. This, along with his opposition to the nomination of Andrew Jackson
for U.S. President, hampered many of his future political ambitions in Alabama. He opposed Jackson primarily on the grounds that he was foul-tempered, having personally executed two men previously.
In 1823, after experiencing many troubles with his cotton plantation, Birney moved to Huntsville, Alabama
to practice law again. His financial troubles were due in part to his habit of horse race gambling
, which he gave up eventually after many losses. Most of his slaves stayed on at the plantation, though he did bring with him to Huntsville his servant Michael, as well as Michael's wife and three children.
At this time there were a number of other practicing lawyers in that area, including one John McKinley
. His name preceded him, and he was admitted to the Alabama bar association
. McKinley, along with several other prominent members of society, successfully campaigned for Birney to become the Solicitor of Alabama's Fifth District in 1823. By the end of the year he decided to close his plantation, and sold the slaves at the plantation to a friend of his that was known for his good temperament and kind treatment of slaves. Following the sale of the plantation and slaves, he achieved financial stability, bought a generous plot of land and constructed a large brick house in Huntsville. As was true upon his first return to Danville years back, he once again became a member of the social elite in this new town. In addition to his duties as a public prosecutor, his private law office proved quite lucrative.
By 1825, he was the wealthiest lawyer in northern Alabama, partnering up with Arthur F. Hopkins. The next year, he resigned as solicitor general to pursue his own career with more tenacity. Over the next several years, he worked, often defending blacks, was appointed a trustee of a private school and joined the Presbyterian Church. In 1828, he became an elector on the John Quincy Adams
and Richard Rush
ticket. He strongly supported Adams for his conservatism
, viewing the politics of Andrew Jackson
and John C. Calhoun
as a threat to the Union
. To Birney's great disappointment, Jackson won. However, he found other ways to champion his beliefs. In 1829, his fellow citizens elected him mayor of Huntsville, Alabama, allowing him to act on his new found faith and work for reforms in public education and temperance.
in 1826. In 1829, he was introduced to [ [Josiah Polk] ] of the ACS by Henry Clay
and became an early supporter of the society. He was intrigued by the possibility of solving the problem of free blacks by starting a colony for them in Liberia, Africa. In January 1830 he helped begin a chapter in Huntsville, Alabama
and subscribed to its literature.
He was then sent on a trip to the East Coast
for the University of Alabama
in search of professors for the college, following the receipt of a generous endowment
for the school. From August through October 1830 he visited Philadelphia, New Brunswick
, New York
, New Haven, Boston
, Ohio
and Kentucky
. He returned home with numerous recommendations, and was thanked for his services. While in these areas, with the exception of Kentucky, he was greatly encouraged by the presence of free states in the Union. This same year, he had some sort of falling out with Henry Clay
and also ceased further campaigning for the Democratic-Republican Party.
In 1831, Birney began considering moving to Illinois
, as he was troubled with the idea of his children growing up in a slave state
. He mentioned a move to Illinois frequently, stating he would free his remaining slave Michael, Michael's wife and three children there. However, this never came to pass. In 1832, the American Colonization Society offered him a position as an agent who traveled around the south promoting their cause and he accepted. He met with some success, including organizing the departure of settlers to Liberia and writing essays in defense of colonization. However, in failing to convert his audience to colonization, he began to doubt its effectiveness and the acceptability of slavery. In 1832, he had decided to return to Danville, Kentucky
.
who had previously expressed their support for emancipation
, suggesting they soon hold a convention on the matter. On December 6, 1832 the gathering was held, with only nine slave owners in attendance. Most of these pledged not to emancipate their current slaves, but to emancipate their slave's offspring at age twenty-one. This small group also aimed to bring in non-slaveholders to promote this idea of "gradual" emancipation.
and, instead, called for the immediate abolition of slavery. This, along with life experience and education, brought Birney to the realization that slavery must be abolished once and for all. Inspired by the Lane Seminary debates, he freed his remaining slaves and declared himself an abolitionist in 1834.
those who set out to author anti-slavery literature in their city.
The Gazette, which was owned by editor Charles Hammond, came to be an ally
of sorts to Birney and his paper. While Hammond himself did not support equal rights for negroes, he did support the idea of a free press
and freedom of speech
. He also strongly resented the attempts of the South to legalize slaveholding in the North.
In October 1835, Birney and his family moved to Cincinnati, Ohio
to prepare for the publication of his abolitionist paper The Philanthropist
, to be published weekly. From his arrival, he and the paper were the subject of controversy, with the majority of local newspapers and others doing everything they could to make him feel unwelcome. The Louisville Journal wrote a scathing editorial that all but directly threatened his paper.
In the Cincinnati Riots of 1836
the press that printed his paper was twice destroyed.
However, writing for his newspaper helped him develop ideas for fighting slavery legislatively. He used them as he worked with Salmon P. Chase
to protect slaves who escaped to Ohio. In 1837, the American Anti-Slavery Society
recruited him as an officer and corresponding secretary and he moved his family to New York.
With the American Anti-Slavery Society’s schism in 1840, he resigned his position as he opposed equal rights for women. Also in that year, the Liberty Party
, a newly formed political party whose only aim was abolition, nominated Birney for president
. Accurately predicting he would not win, he instead went as a delegate to the World Anti-Slavery Convention
in London
. The convention named him a vice-president and spread his writings throughout England. When he came back, the Liberty Party made use of his legal expertise in their efforts to defend blacks and fugitive slaves. They chose him as their candidate again in the 1844 presidential election
.
with his new wife and family. He lived at the Webster House in Saginaw for a few months until his home in Bay City, Michigan was ready. Birney was in the land development business in Bay City. He was a trustee of the reorganized Saginaw Bay Company and was deeply involved in the planning of Bay City, Michigan, where Birney Park is named after him. Birney and the other developers supported churches in their community where they set aside money for church construction. In addition to running for the Presidency in 1840 and 1844, Birney received 3023 votes for governor of the State of Michigan in 1845. Birney remained in Michigan until 1855, when his health drove him to move to the East Coast.
While in Bay City, Birney led a life of farming and agricultural pursuits in addition to his legal work, land development and national anti-slavery involvement. He commented on the lack of help available in the city and was found working on his own fence.
His son, James Birney, came to Bay City then called Lower Saginaw to take care of his father's business interests in the city. James remained in Bay City and followed his father's tradition of public service. He is buried in Pine Ridge Cemetery on the East side of town.
following a horseback riding accident, which recurred intermittently for the remainder of his life. His speech became affected as his condition worsened, until he was eventually left to communication through gestures and writing (the latter made difficult by severe tremors). He ended his public career and his direct involvement in the abolitionist movement as a result, though he kept himself informed of new developments. He died in New Jersey in 1857 in a communal settlement surrounded by abolitionist friends, but convinced that war would be necessary to end slavery. He was buried at the Williamsburg Cemetery
in Groveland, New York
, the home of his wife's family. In 1840, he had married Elizabeth Potts Fitzhugh (sister of Henry Fitzhugh
and of Ann Carroll Fitzhugh, wife of Gerrit Smith
).
Politician
A politician, political leader, or political figure is an individual who is involved in influencing public policy and decision making...
and jurist
Jurist
A jurist or jurisconsult is a professional who studies, develops, applies, or otherwise deals with the law. The term is widely used in American English, but in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth countries it has only historical and specialist usage...
born in Danville, Kentucky
Danville, Kentucky
Danville is a city in and the county seat of Boyle County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 16,218 at the 2010 census.Danville is the principal city of the Danville Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Boyle and Lincoln counties....
. From 1816 to 1818, he served in the Kentucky House of Representatives
Kentucky House of Representatives
The Kentucky House of Representatives is the lower house of the Kentucky General Assembly. It is composed of 100 Representatives elected from single-member districts throughout the Commonwealth. Not more than two counties can be joined to form a House district, except when necessary to preserve...
. In 1836, he started his abolitionist weekly publication in Cincinnati, Ohio
Cincinnati, Ohio
Cincinnati is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio. Cincinnati is the county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located to north of the Ohio River at the Ohio-Kentucky border, near Indiana. The population within city limits is 296,943 according to the 2010 census, making it Ohio's...
titled The Philanthropist
The Philanthropist (Cincinnati, Ohio)
The Philanthropist was an abolitionist newspaper printed in Cincinnati, Ohio starting in 1836, edited by James G. Birney and published by a printer named Achilles Pugh for the Ohio chapter of the Anti-Slavery Society....
.
Youth
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
Episcopalian slaveholder of the same name in Danville, Kentucky
Danville, Kentucky
Danville is a city in and the county seat of Boyle County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 16,218 at the 2010 census.Danville is the principal city of the Danville Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Boyle and Lincoln counties....
, James G. Birney lost his mother during his youth. He and his sister were raised by their aunt, who had come over from Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
at the request of his father to look after the two. By 1795, his father's two sisters and their families had migrated from Ireland, settling on farms near his home. Most of his mother's relatives had also migrated nearby, settling in other areas of Mercer County, Kentucky
Mercer County, Kentucky
Mercer County is a county located in the U.S. state of Kentucky. As of 2000, the population was 20,817. Its county seat is Harrodsburg. The county is named for General Hugh Mercer...
. Growing up, he saw the issue of slavery from a variety of perspectives. Though his father fought to prevent their state of Kentucky from joining the Union as a slave state, when the effort failed, he decided that until the legislature abolished slavery from the state as a whole, a person could own slaves as long as he treated them humanely. Other members of Birney’s family felt personal moral responsibility and refused to own slaves. Most notably, the aunt that raised him did not own slaves and paid them when they performed services for her. For his own part, Birney agreed with his father and received his first slave at age six. However, for much of his youth and education, he was under the influence of teachers and friends with strong anti-slavery views. For example, he attended several sermons given by a Baptist
Baptist
Baptists comprise a group of Christian denominations and churches that subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers , and that it must be done by immersion...
abolitionist by the name of David Barrow in his youth, which he later recalled with fondness.
Schooling
Transylvania University
Transylvania University is a private, undergraduate liberal arts college in Lexington, Kentucky, United States, affiliated with the Christian Church . The school was founded in 1780. It offers 38 majors, and pre-professional degrees in engineering and accounting...
in Lexington, Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
Lexington is the second-largest city in Kentucky and the 63rd largest in the US. Known as the "Thoroughbred City" and the "Horse Capital of the World", it is located in the heart of Kentucky's Bluegrass region...
, returning home two years later to enter a school run by a Presbyterian man that had just opened in Dansville. He excelled in his studies there, which were mostly based in the sciences. In 1808, he entered the College of New Jersey at age seventeen, which was the name of Princeton University
Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....
at that time. He studied political philosophy
Political philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of such topics as liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why they are needed, what, if anything, makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it...
, logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
and moral philosophy, and became known as a proficient debater. Among his classmates, he became particularly good friends with George M. Dallas
George M. Dallas
George Mifflin Dallas was a U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania and the 11th Vice President of the United States , serving under James K. Polk.-Family and early life:...
. He studied under the president of the school (Samuel Stanhope Smith
Samuel Stanhope Smith
Samuel Stanhope Smith was a Presbyterian minister, founding president of Hampden-Sydney College and the seventh president of the College of New Jersey from 1795 to 1812. His stormy career ended in his enforced resignation...
), who was both a logician and author that held weak anti-slavery sentiments. He believed that slavery was morally wrong, but upheld the citizens' right of ownership. Birney graduated from Princeton on September 26, 1810.
When he returned to Danville following graduation, he worked for the campaign of Henry Clay
Henry Clay
Henry Clay, Sr. , was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives...
for one month. After this, he began to study law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
at the office of Alexander J. Dallas
Alexander J. Dallas (statesman)
Alexander James Dallas was an American statesman who served as the U.S. Treasury Secretary under President James Madison....
in Philadelphia, the father of his Princeton friend and classmate. He lived among well means, having a horse carriage for transportation and always being well-dressed. He also made friends with members of the local Quaker community. He remained in Philadelphia with Dallas for the next three years, until he passed the Philadelphia bar examination
Bar examination
A bar examination is an examination conducted at regular intervals to determine whether a candidate is qualified to practice law in a given jurisdiction.-Brazil:...
and was admitted to the bar association
Bar association
A bar association is a professional body of lawyers. Some bar associations are responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in their jurisdiction; others are professional organizations dedicated to serving their members; in many cases, they are both...
.
Law practice
In May 1814 Birney returned to his hometown and took up the practice of law there, becoming the acting attorneyLawyer
A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law; as an attorney, counsel or solicitor; a person who is practicing law." Law is the system of rules of conduct established by the sovereign government of a society to correct wrongs, maintain the stability of political...
for the local bank
Bank
A bank is a financial institution that serves as a financial intermediary. The term "bank" may refer to one of several related types of entities:...
. He handled both civil and criminal lawsuits in Danville and other outlying counties of Kentucky
Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...
. The economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
of Kentucky was rather poor at this time, as the War of 1812
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
had caused a schism in trade
Trade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
within the state. Having trouble making ends meet, Birney made his living at this time primarily as a claims adjuster
Claims adjuster
Claims adjusters investigate insurance claims by interviewing the claimant and witnesses, consulting police and hospital records, and inspecting property damage to determine the extent of the company’s liability. In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, South Africa, the Caribbean and New Zealand...
.
Following in the footsteps of his father, Birney became a freemason upon his return to Danville and a member of Danville's town council
Town council
A town council is a democratically elected form of government for small municipalities or civil parishes. A council may serve as both the representative and executive branch....
, making him a "member" of the town's social elite. He also fell in love with Agatha McDowell and married her on February 1, 1816 at a Presbyterian church. Among the wedding gifts the young couple received were slaves from his father and father-in-law
Father-in-law
A parent-in-law is a person who has a legal affinity with another by being the parent of the other's spouse. Many cultures and legal systems impose duties and responsibilities on persons connected by this relationship...
. As Birney had yet to fully develop his abolitionist views, he accepted them kindly. It should be said that later in life Birney was known to say on many occasions that he does not recall ever believing that slavery was right.
Kentucky politics
Henry Clay
Henry Clay, Sr. , was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives...
, who was running for U.S. Congress. He also campaigned for George Madison
George Madison
George Madison was the sixth Governor of Kentucky. He was the first governor of Kentucky to die in office, serving only a few weeks in 1816. Little is known of Madison's early life. He was a member of the influential Madison family of Virginia, and was a second cousin to President James Madison...
, who was running for Kentucky Governor and won (Madison died months later). His political sentiments at the time were with the Democratic-Republican Party. In 1816, Birney won a seat in the Kentucky General Assembly
Kentucky General Assembly
The Kentucky General Assembly, also called the Kentucky Legislature, is the state legislature of the U.S. state of Kentucky.The General Assembly meets annually in the state capitol building in Frankfort, Kentucky, convening on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in January...
representing Mercer County
Mercer County, Kentucky
Mercer County is a county located in the U.S. state of Kentucky. As of 2000, the population was 20,817. Its county seat is Harrodsburg. The county is named for General Hugh Mercer...
, becoming a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives
Kentucky House of Representatives
The Kentucky House of Representatives is the lower house of the Kentucky General Assembly. It is composed of 100 Representatives elected from single-member districts throughout the Commonwealth. Not more than two counties can be joined to form a House district, except when necessary to preserve...
at age twenty-four. In 1817, the Kentucky Senate
Kentucky Senate
The Kentucky Senate is the upper house of the Kentucky General Assembly. The Kentucky Senate is composed of 38 members elected from single-member districts throughout the Commonwealth. There are no term limits for Kentucky Senators...
drafted a resolution that proposed opening a dialogue between the newly installed governor of Kentucky, Gabriel Slaughter
Gabriel Slaughter
Gabriel Slaughter was the seventh Governor of Kentucky and was the first person to ascend to that office upon the death of the sitting governor. His family moved to Kentucky from Virginia when he was very young. He became a member of the Kentucky militia, serving throughout his political career...
, and the governors of Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...
and Indiana
Indiana
Indiana is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the Midwestern United States and Great Lakes Region. With 6,483,802 residents, the state is ranked 15th in population and 16th in population density. Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and is...
for the purpose of passing laws in those states calling for the capture and return of runaway slaves from Kentucky.
Birney staunchly opposed this resolution and it was defeated, though a new resolution was soon after drafted and passed, despite Birney's opposition yet again. As he saw very little future for himself in Kentucky politics, Birney decided to move to Alabama
Alabama
Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...
with the hope of starting a political career.
Alabama
Madison County, Alabama
Madison County is a county of the U.S. state of Alabama, and is a major part of the Huntsville Metropolitan Area.It is also included in the merged Huntsville-Decatur Combined Statistical Area. The county is named in honor of James Madison, fourth President of the United States of America, and the...
, where he purchased a cotton plantation and slaves, most of whom came with him from Kentucky. In 1819, Birney became a member of the Alabama House of Representatives
Alabama House of Representatives
The Alabama House of Representatives is the lower house of the Alabama Legislature, the state legislature of the U.S. state of Alabama. The House is composed of 105 members representing an equal amount of districts, with each constituency containing at least 42,380 citizens. There are no term...
representing Madison County. While there, he helped draft an act that would afford slaves tried by jury paid legal counsel, barring the master and prosecutorial witness or their relatives from being members of the jury
Jury
A jury is a sworn body of people convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment. Modern juries tend to be found in courts to ascertain the guilt, or lack thereof, in a crime. In Anglophone jurisdictions, the verdict may be guilty,...
. This, along with his opposition to the nomination of Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States . Based in frontier Tennessee, Jackson was a politician and army general who defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , and the British at the Battle of New Orleans...
for U.S. President, hampered many of his future political ambitions in Alabama. He opposed Jackson primarily on the grounds that he was foul-tempered, having personally executed two men previously.
In 1823, after experiencing many troubles with his cotton plantation, Birney moved to Huntsville, Alabama
Huntsville, Alabama
Huntsville is a city located primarily in Madison County in the central part of the far northern region of the U.S. state of Alabama. Huntsville is the county seat of Madison County. The city extends west into neighboring Limestone County. Huntsville's population was 180,105 as of the 2010 Census....
to practice law again. His financial troubles were due in part to his habit of horse race gambling
Gambling
Gambling is the wagering of money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money and/or material goods...
, which he gave up eventually after many losses. Most of his slaves stayed on at the plantation, though he did bring with him to Huntsville his servant Michael, as well as Michael's wife and three children.
John McKinley
John McKinley was a U.S. Senator from the state of Alabama and an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court.Born in Culpeper County, Virginia, his family moved to Kentucky when he was an infant...
. His name preceded him, and he was admitted to the Alabama bar association
Bar association
A bar association is a professional body of lawyers. Some bar associations are responsible for the regulation of the legal profession in their jurisdiction; others are professional organizations dedicated to serving their members; in many cases, they are both...
. McKinley, along with several other prominent members of society, successfully campaigned for Birney to become the Solicitor of Alabama's Fifth District in 1823. By the end of the year he decided to close his plantation, and sold the slaves at the plantation to a friend of his that was known for his good temperament and kind treatment of slaves. Following the sale of the plantation and slaves, he achieved financial stability, bought a generous plot of land and constructed a large brick house in Huntsville. As was true upon his first return to Danville years back, he once again became a member of the social elite in this new town. In addition to his duties as a public prosecutor, his private law office proved quite lucrative.
By 1825, he was the wealthiest lawyer in northern Alabama, partnering up with Arthur F. Hopkins. The next year, he resigned as solicitor general to pursue his own career with more tenacity. Over the next several years, he worked, often defending blacks, was appointed a trustee of a private school and joined the Presbyterian Church. In 1828, he became an elector on the John Quincy Adams
John Quincy Adams
John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States . He served as an American diplomat, Senator, and Congressional representative. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. Adams was the son of former...
and Richard Rush
Richard Rush
Richard Rush was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was the second son of Benjamin Rush, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and Julia Rush. He entered the College of New Jersey at the age of 14, and graduated in 1797 as the youngest member of his class...
ticket. He strongly supported Adams for his conservatism
Conservatism
Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes the maintenance of traditional institutions and supports, at the most, minimal and gradual change in society. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose modernism...
, viewing the politics of Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States . Based in frontier Tennessee, Jackson was a politician and army general who defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend , and the British at the Battle of New Orleans...
and John C. Calhoun
John C. Calhoun
John Caldwell Calhoun was a leading politician and political theorist from South Carolina during the first half of the 19th century. Calhoun eloquently spoke out on every issue of his day, but often changed positions. Calhoun began his political career as a nationalist, modernizer, and proponent...
as a threat to the Union
Union (American Civil War)
During the American Civil War, the Union was a name used to refer to the federal government of the United States, which was supported by the twenty free states and five border slave states. It was opposed by 11 southern slave states that had declared a secession to join together to form the...
. To Birney's great disappointment, Jackson won. However, he found other ways to champion his beliefs. In 1829, his fellow citizens elected him mayor of Huntsville, Alabama, allowing him to act on his new found faith and work for reforms in public education and temperance.
American Colonization Society
Birney’s religious fervor also encouraged him to reevaluate his views on slavery. Increasingly alienated by the politics of the Jackson administration, he discovered the American Colonization SocietyAmerican Colonization Society
The American Colonization Society , founded in 1816, was the primary vehicle to support the "return" of free African Americans to what was considered greater freedom in Africa. It helped to found the colony of Liberia in 1821–22 as a place for freedmen...
in 1826. In 1829, he was introduced to [ [Josiah Polk] ] of the ACS by Henry Clay
Henry Clay
Henry Clay, Sr. , was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives...
and became an early supporter of the society. He was intrigued by the possibility of solving the problem of free blacks by starting a colony for them in Liberia, Africa. In January 1830 he helped begin a chapter in Huntsville, Alabama
Huntsville, Alabama
Huntsville is a city located primarily in Madison County in the central part of the far northern region of the U.S. state of Alabama. Huntsville is the county seat of Madison County. The city extends west into neighboring Limestone County. Huntsville's population was 180,105 as of the 2010 Census....
and subscribed to its literature.
He was then sent on a trip to the East Coast
East Coast of the United States
The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, refers to the easternmost coastal states in the United States, which touch the Atlantic Ocean and stretch up to Canada. The term includes the U.S...
for the University of Alabama
University of Alabama
The University of Alabama is a public coeducational university located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, United States....
in search of professors for the college, following the receipt of a generous endowment
Financial endowment
A financial endowment is a transfer of money or property donated to an institution. The total value of an institution's investments is often referred to as the institution's endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust....
for the school. From August through October 1830 he visited Philadelphia, New Brunswick
New Brunswick, New Jersey
New Brunswick is a city in Middlesex County, New Jersey, USA. It is the county seat and the home of Rutgers University. The city is located on the Northeast Corridor rail line, southwest of Manhattan, on the southern bank of the Raritan River. At the 2010 United States Census, the population of...
, New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
, New Haven, Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
, Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...
and Kentucky
Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...
. He returned home with numerous recommendations, and was thanked for his services. While in these areas, with the exception of Kentucky, he was greatly encouraged by the presence of free states in the Union. This same year, he had some sort of falling out with Henry Clay
Henry Clay
Henry Clay, Sr. , was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives...
and also ceased further campaigning for the Democratic-Republican Party.
In 1831, Birney began considering moving to Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...
, as he was troubled with the idea of his children growing up in a slave state
Slave state
In the United States of America prior to the American Civil War, a slave state was a U.S. state in which slavery was legal, whereas a free state was one in which slavery was either prohibited from its entry into the Union or eliminated over time...
. He mentioned a move to Illinois frequently, stating he would free his remaining slave Michael, Michael's wife and three children there. However, this never came to pass. In 1832, the American Colonization Society offered him a position as an agent who traveled around the south promoting their cause and he accepted. He met with some success, including organizing the departure of settlers to Liberia and writing essays in defense of colonization. However, in failing to convert his audience to colonization, he began to doubt its effectiveness and the acceptability of slavery. In 1832, he had decided to return to Danville, Kentucky
Danville, Kentucky
Danville is a city in and the county seat of Boyle County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 16,218 at the 2010 census.Danville is the principal city of the Danville Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Boyle and Lincoln counties....
.
Danville
A year before returning to Danville, Birney wrote letters to slaveholders in KentuckyKentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...
who had previously expressed their support for emancipation
Emancipation
Emancipation means the act of setting an individual or social group free or making equal to citizens in a political society.Emancipation may also refer to:* Emancipation , a champion Australian thoroughbred racehorse foaled in 1979...
, suggesting they soon hold a convention on the matter. On December 6, 1832 the gathering was held, with only nine slave owners in attendance. Most of these pledged not to emancipate their current slaves, but to emancipate their slave's offspring at age twenty-one. This small group also aimed to bring in non-slaveholders to promote this idea of "gradual" emancipation.
Abolitionist
In 1833, he read a paper signed by several Christian organizations that repudiated the tenets of the American Colonization SocietyAmerican Colonization Society
The American Colonization Society , founded in 1816, was the primary vehicle to support the "return" of free African Americans to what was considered greater freedom in Africa. It helped to found the colony of Liberia in 1821–22 as a place for freedmen...
and, instead, called for the immediate abolition of slavery. This, along with life experience and education, brought Birney to the realization that slavery must be abolished once and for all. Inspired by the Lane Seminary debates, he freed his remaining slaves and declared himself an abolitionist in 1834.
Cincinnati
In August 1835, Birney visited Cincinnati to make contacts with friends and fellow members of the abolitionist movement there. He worked to gain support in publishing an anti-slavery newspaper. At this time, there were four newspapers in the city, and all but the Cincinnati Daily Gazette released "critically-roundabout" editorials the next day that assailed the faults of abolitionism in general. One paper, The Daily Post (not to be confused with the Cincinnati Post), even called for lynchingLynching
Lynching is an extrajudicial execution carried out by a mob, often by hanging, but also by burning at the stake or shooting, in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate, control, or otherwise manipulate a population of people. It is related to other means of social control that...
those who set out to author anti-slavery literature in their city.
The Gazette, which was owned by editor Charles Hammond, came to be an ally
Ally
Ally is a common unisex given name. It is a variant of Allie. It can also refer to:* Ally, a 1999 American TV sitcom that was a spin-off of Ally McBeal.* Ally Bank, an internet bank, formerly the banking unit of GMAC....
of sorts to Birney and his paper. While Hammond himself did not support equal rights for negroes, he did support the idea of a free press
Freedom of the press
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression through vehicles including various electronic media and published materials...
and freedom of speech
Freedom of speech
Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship. The term freedom of expression is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used...
. He also strongly resented the attempts of the South to legalize slaveholding in the North.
In October 1835, Birney and his family moved to Cincinnati, Ohio
Cincinnati, Ohio
Cincinnati is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio. Cincinnati is the county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located to north of the Ohio River at the Ohio-Kentucky border, near Indiana. The population within city limits is 296,943 according to the 2010 census, making it Ohio's...
to prepare for the publication of his abolitionist paper The Philanthropist
The Philanthropist (Cincinnati, Ohio)
The Philanthropist was an abolitionist newspaper printed in Cincinnati, Ohio starting in 1836, edited by James G. Birney and published by a printer named Achilles Pugh for the Ohio chapter of the Anti-Slavery Society....
, to be published weekly. From his arrival, he and the paper were the subject of controversy, with the majority of local newspapers and others doing everything they could to make him feel unwelcome. The Louisville Journal wrote a scathing editorial that all but directly threatened his paper.
In the Cincinnati Riots of 1836
Cincinnati Riots of 1836
The Cincinnati Riots of 1836 were caused by racial tensions at a time when African Americans, some of whom had escaped from slavery in the southern states of the USA, were competing with whites for jobs....
the press that printed his paper was twice destroyed.
However, writing for his newspaper helped him develop ideas for fighting slavery legislatively. He used them as he worked with Salmon P. Chase
Salmon P. Chase
Salmon Portland Chase was an American politician and jurist who served as U.S. Senator from Ohio and the 23rd Governor of Ohio; as U.S. Treasury Secretary under President Abraham Lincoln; and as the sixth Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court.Chase was one of the most prominent members...
to protect slaves who escaped to Ohio. In 1837, the American Anti-Slavery Society
American Anti-Slavery Society
The American Anti-Slavery Society was an abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison and Arthur Tappan. Frederick Douglass was a key leader of this society and often spoke at its meetings. William Wells Brown was another freed slave who often spoke at meetings. By 1838, the society had...
recruited him as an officer and corresponding secretary and he moved his family to New York.
Liberty Party
Liberty Party (1840s)
The Liberty Party was a minor political party in the United States in the 1840s . The party was an early advocate of the abolitionist cause...
, a newly formed political party whose only aim was abolition, nominated Birney for president
United States presidential election, 1840
The United States presidential election of 1840 saw President Martin Van Buren fight for re-election against an economic depression and a Whig Party unified for the first time behind war hero William Henry Harrison and his "log cabin campaign"...
. Accurately predicting he would not win, he instead went as a delegate to the World Anti-Slavery Convention
Anti-Slavery International
Anti-Slavery International is an international nongovernmental organization, charity and a lobby group, based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1839, it is the world's oldest international human rights organization, and the only charity in the United Kingdom to work exclusively against slavery and...
in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
. The convention named him a vice-president and spread his writings throughout England. When he came back, the Liberty Party made use of his legal expertise in their efforts to defend blacks and fugitive slaves. They chose him as their candidate again in the 1844 presidential election
United States presidential election, 1844
In the United States presidential election of 1844, Democrat James K. Polk defeated Whig Henry Clay in a close contest that turned on foreign policy, with Polk favoring the annexation of Texas and Clay opposed....
.
Michigan
In 1841, Birney moved to Saginaw, MichiganSaginaw, Michigan
Saginaw is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the seat of Saginaw County. The city of Saginaw was once a thriving lumber town and manufacturing center. Saginaw and Saginaw County lie in the Flint/Tri-Cities region of Michigan...
with his new wife and family. He lived at the Webster House in Saginaw for a few months until his home in Bay City, Michigan was ready. Birney was in the land development business in Bay City. He was a trustee of the reorganized Saginaw Bay Company and was deeply involved in the planning of Bay City, Michigan, where Birney Park is named after him. Birney and the other developers supported churches in their community where they set aside money for church construction. In addition to running for the Presidency in 1840 and 1844, Birney received 3023 votes for governor of the State of Michigan in 1845. Birney remained in Michigan until 1855, when his health drove him to move to the East Coast.
While in Bay City, Birney led a life of farming and agricultural pursuits in addition to his legal work, land development and national anti-slavery involvement. He commented on the lack of help available in the city and was found working on his own fence.
His son, James Birney, came to Bay City then called Lower Saginaw to take care of his father's business interests in the city. James remained in Bay City and followed his father's tradition of public service. He is buried in Pine Ridge Cemetery on the East side of town.
Paralysis
In August 1845, Birney suffered from bouts of paralysisParalysis
Paralysis is loss of muscle function for one or more muscles. Paralysis can be accompanied by a loss of feeling in the affected area if there is sensory damage as well as motor. A study conducted by the Christopher & Dana Reeve Foundation, suggests that about 1 in 50 people have been diagnosed...
following a horseback riding accident, which recurred intermittently for the remainder of his life. His speech became affected as his condition worsened, until he was eventually left to communication through gestures and writing (the latter made difficult by severe tremors). He ended his public career and his direct involvement in the abolitionist movement as a result, though he kept himself informed of new developments. He died in New Jersey in 1857 in a communal settlement surrounded by abolitionist friends, but convinced that war would be necessary to end slavery. He was buried at the Williamsburg Cemetery
Williamsburg Cemetery
Williamsburg Cemetery is a historic cemetery located at Hampton Corners in Livingston County, New York. It was established in 1792 and is one of the earliest European American settlement period cemeteries in Western New York and is the last surviving above ground remnant of the now vanished village...
in Groveland, New York
Groveland, New York
Groveland is a town in Livingston County, New York, United States. The population was 3,853 at the 2000 census.The Town of Groveland is centrally located in the county, south of Geneseo.- History :...
, the home of his wife's family. In 1840, he had married Elizabeth Potts Fitzhugh (sister of Henry Fitzhugh
Henry Fitzhugh
Henry Fitzhugh was an American merchant, businessman and politician from New York.-Life:...
and of Ann Carroll Fitzhugh, wife of Gerrit Smith
Gerrit Smith
Gerrit Smith was a leading United States social reformer, abolitionist, politician, and philanthropist...
).