Jökulsárlón
Encyclopedia
Jökulsárlón is the largest glacier lagoon or lake in Iceland
. Situated in south eastern Iceland, at the head of the Breiðamerkurjökull glacier branching from the Vatnajökull
, between Skaftafell National Park
and Höfn
, it evolved into a lagoon
after the glacier started receding from the edge of the Atlantic Ocean
. The lake has grown since then at varying rates because of melting of the Icelandic glaciers. The lagoon now stands 1.5 kilometre (0.93205910497471 mi) away from the ocean's edge and covers an area of about 18 square kilometre. It is the second deepest lake in Iceland at over 200 metres (656.2 ft) depth. The size of the lagoon has increased fourfold since the 1970s. It is considered as one of the natural wonders of Iceland.
The lagoon can be seen along Route 1 between Hofn
and Skaftafell
. It presents a picturesque parade termed as “A ghostly procession of luminous blue ice-bergs through the 17 square kilometre (18 square kilometre as reported in other sources) Jokulsarlon Lagoon”.
Jökulsárlón has been a setting for four Hollywood movies namely, 'A View to a Kill
', 'Die Another Day
', 'Tomb Raider
' and 'Batman Begins
', in addition to the reality-TV series Amazing Race. A postage stamp depicting Jökulsárlón was issued in 1991 with a face value of 26 krónur.
The tongue of the Breiðamerkurjökull
glacier is a major attraction for tourists. Tour operators conduct snowmobiles and jeep tours to visit the glacier along the winding iceberg studded Jökulsárlón Lagoon. The base station for visits to the area is at Joklasel, which is approached from Hofn. It is termed as Tourist Conveyor belt. While walking on the shore, the isolated big blocks of icebergs on the sand beaches could be seen.
glacier was about 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) further north of the present location. During the Little Ice Age
between 1600 and 1900 AD, with cooler temperatures prevailing in these latitudes, the glacier had grown up to about 1 kilometre (0.621372736649807 mi) from the coast at Jokulsa River, till about 1890. With temperatures rising between 1920 and 1965, changes started occurring in the Breiðamerkurjökull
glacier tongue. It started retreating at a fast rate with the continuing process of calving and falling of icebergs of varying size, and thus creating a lagoon in its wake, around the years 1934–35. The lagoon is about 200 metres (656.2 ft) deep where the glacier snout originally existed. Glacial moraines got exposed on both sides of the lagoon. In 1975, the lagoon was about 8 square kilometre in area and now it is reportedly stands at 18 square kilometre at the edge of the glacier tongue.
With the rate at which Vatnajökull is retreating and the lagoon is getting formed, in the near future, it is anticipated that there is likely to be a deep fjord
where Vatnajökull is now. This retreat is also posing a threat to the National Highway Route 1 of Iceland. Reykjavík
, the capital of Iceland is 250 kilometres (155.3 mi) from the lake and the road between the capital and the lagoon winds through a dozen other glaciers, which are also under retreat. It is 75 kilometres (46.6 mi) to the west of Höfn town
and 60 kilometres (37.3 mi) east of Skaftafell National Park. It is accessible by the ring road, Route 1, that goes across the lagoon, and where parking facilities have been provided for visitors. It is also known as the "Tourist Conveyor belt". While walking on the shore, isolated large blocks of icebergs can be seen on the black sand beach.
, Vik
and Kirkjubæjarklaustur
. Skógarfoss waterfall and Skaftafell National Park are also seen during the drive through Skeidarársandur; the sand storms generated at the Skeidarársandur are reported to be so powerful that they can strip off the paint of a car.
The lagoon is filled with fishes that drift in from the sea along with the tides. Seals
gather in large numbers at the mouth of the lagoon to catch fish during the winter, which is a sight to watch. Large numbers of sea birds, particularly arctic terns, which nest nearby also gather to catch herring
, trout
, salmon
and other fishes and krill
. Breiðamerkursandur (the large sand deposits in the area) is the main habitat of the skua
(Stercorariidae). During the summer season the skuas, which are big seagulls have their nests on the lake's shores. The skuas, fat and dark in colour with white wings, are said to be aggressive "pirate of the seas", which harass other birds (as big as gannets) to have a free meal. They also kill and eat smaller birds like the puffins. They are not afraid of human beings and also do not tolerate human beings close to its nests. It is reported that these birds migrate from their wintering grounds off the coasts of Spain
and Africa
. Seals are seen either swimming in the lagoon or lying on icebergs. Many times, the tides carry shoals of herring
or capelan into the lagoon by the tide and the birds feast on them.
Einar Björn Einarsson is the operator of the boat trips on the Glacier Lagoon. The Landowners Association leases out the site at the lagoon front to this operator to ply the boats on the lagoon.
was introduced to the fleet by the Glacier lagoon. In 1995 the number of passengers per year had multiplied and the company then operated 3 amphibian Vehicles. In 1999 the company was sold to Einar Björn Einarsson a local from the nearby town Höfn
. In 2006 the fourth amphibian was introduced to the operation. The company Jökulsárlón ehf. now holds about 30 seasonal employees and for the past few years between 60 – 70 thousand passengers have gone on the boat tours every year. Since the first commercial boat tour took place on the Glacier lagoon about 900.000 passengers have taken the excursion offered by the company Jökulsárlón ehf.
The picturesque scene of the Jökulsárlón lagoon and the Breiðamerkurjökull
glacier have been part of the James Bond films
A View to a Kill
(1985) and Die Another Day
(2002), as well as Batman Begins
(2005) and Beowulf and Grendel (2005).
The popularity of the glaciers could be attributed to these blockbuster films, to Lara Croft's Tomb Raider
and also to the popular commercials which have been centred on this location.
Choreographing the car chase scene, which is termed as the greatest movie car chase of all time, between a Jaguar and Aston Martin, a set that was created for the film at the location of the lagoon was a challenge to 'Action Unit' Director Vic Armstrong, of the Bond film Die Another Day.
The popularity of the lagoon has been further boosted by the TV coverage provided live from Jökulsárlón Lagoon on the American TV program Good Morning America
(American morning news and talk show that is broadcast on the ABC television network) in southeast Iceland, on November 13, 2006. The "amazing landscape” covered on the TV programme not only included Jökulsárlón Lagoon filled with icebergs but also pictures of Antarctica and the polar
ice caps, which were telecast live from Iceland. This live broadcast, which was made possible by a crew of 30 people, is reported to have been watched by 4 million people.
Iceland
Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
. Situated in south eastern Iceland, at the head of the Breiðamerkurjökull glacier branching from the Vatnajökull
Vatnajökull
Vatnajökull is the largest glacier in Iceland. It is located in the south-east of the island, covering more than 8% of the country.-Size:With an area of 8,100 km², Vatnajökull is the largest ice cap in Europe by volume and the second largest in area Vatnajökull is the largest glacier in...
, between Skaftafell National Park
Skaftafell National Park
Skaftafell National Park was a national park, situated between Kirkjubæjarklaustur, typically referred to as Klaustur, and Höfn in the south of Iceland. On 7 June 2008, it became a part of the larger Vatnajökull National Park....
and Höfn
Höfn
Höfn or Höfn í Hornafirði is an Icelandic fishing town in the south-eastern part of the country.As of 2011, the population of the town was 1,641. This harbour town, the second largest in the south-eastern part of Iceland, gives scenic views of Vatnajökull...
, it evolved into a lagoon
Lagoon
A lagoon is a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form of barrier. The EU's habitat directive defines lagoons as "expanses of shallow coastal salt water, of varying salinity or water volume, wholly or partially separated from the sea by sand banks or shingle,...
after the glacier started receding from the edge of the Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
. The lake has grown since then at varying rates because of melting of the Icelandic glaciers. The lagoon now stands 1.5 kilometre (0.93205910497471 mi) away from the ocean's edge and covers an area of about 18 square kilometre. It is the second deepest lake in Iceland at over 200 metres (656.2 ft) depth. The size of the lagoon has increased fourfold since the 1970s. It is considered as one of the natural wonders of Iceland.
The lagoon can be seen along Route 1 between Hofn
Höfn
Höfn or Höfn í Hornafirði is an Icelandic fishing town in the south-eastern part of the country.As of 2011, the population of the town was 1,641. This harbour town, the second largest in the south-eastern part of Iceland, gives scenic views of Vatnajökull...
and Skaftafell
Skaftafell
Skaftafell is a preservation area in Öræfi, southeast Iceland. It used to be a manor farm and a national park, but has been a part of Vatnajökull National Park since its establishment in 2008.- History of habitation :...
. It presents a picturesque parade termed as “A ghostly procession of luminous blue ice-bergs through the 17 square kilometre (18 square kilometre as reported in other sources) Jokulsarlon Lagoon”.
Jökulsárlón has been a setting for four Hollywood movies namely, 'A View to a Kill
A View to a Kill
A View to a Kill is the fourteenth spy film of the James Bond series, and the seventh and last to star Roger Moore as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Although the title is adapted from Ian Fleming's short story "From a View to a Kill", the film is the fourth Bond film after The Spy Who Loved...
', 'Die Another Day
Die Another Day
Die Another Day is the 20th spy film in the James Bond series, and the fourth and last film to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond; it is also the last Bond film of the original timeline with the series being rebooted with Casino Royale...
', 'Tomb Raider
Tomb Raider
Tomb Raider is an action-adventure video game developed by Core Design and published by Eidos Interactive. It was originally released in 1996 for the Sega Saturn, with MS-DOS and PlayStation versions following shortly thereafter...
' and 'Batman Begins
Batman Begins
Batman Begins is a 2005 American superhero action film based on the fictional DC Comics character Batman, directed by Christopher Nolan. It stars Christian Bale as Batman, along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Liam Neeson, Katie Holmes, Cillian Murphy, Morgan Freeman, Ken Watanabe, Tom Wilkinson,...
', in addition to the reality-TV series Amazing Race. A postage stamp depicting Jökulsárlón was issued in 1991 with a face value of 26 krónur.
The tongue of the Breiðamerkurjökull
Breiðamerkurjökull
Breiðamerkurjökull is an outlet glacier of the larger glacier of Vatnajökull in southeastern Iceland. Emerging as a tongue of the Vatnajökull, it ends in a small lagoon, known as Jökulsárlón. Over time, it has gradually been breaking down....
glacier is a major attraction for tourists. Tour operators conduct snowmobiles and jeep tours to visit the glacier along the winding iceberg studded Jökulsárlón Lagoon. The base station for visits to the area is at Joklasel, which is approached from Hofn. It is termed as Tourist Conveyor belt. While walking on the shore, the isolated big blocks of icebergs on the sand beaches could be seen.
History
The first settlers arrived in Iceland around 900 AD when the edge of the glacier tongue of BreiðamerkurjökullBreiðamerkurjökull
Breiðamerkurjökull is an outlet glacier of the larger glacier of Vatnajökull in southeastern Iceland. Emerging as a tongue of the Vatnajökull, it ends in a small lagoon, known as Jökulsárlón. Over time, it has gradually been breaking down....
glacier was about 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) further north of the present location. During the Little Ice Age
Little Ice Age
The Little Ice Age was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . While not a true ice age, the term was introduced into the scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939...
between 1600 and 1900 AD, with cooler temperatures prevailing in these latitudes, the glacier had grown up to about 1 kilometre (0.621372736649807 mi) from the coast at Jokulsa River, till about 1890. With temperatures rising between 1920 and 1965, changes started occurring in the Breiðamerkurjökull
Breiðamerkurjökull
Breiðamerkurjökull is an outlet glacier of the larger glacier of Vatnajökull in southeastern Iceland. Emerging as a tongue of the Vatnajökull, it ends in a small lagoon, known as Jökulsárlón. Over time, it has gradually been breaking down....
glacier tongue. It started retreating at a fast rate with the continuing process of calving and falling of icebergs of varying size, and thus creating a lagoon in its wake, around the years 1934–35. The lagoon is about 200 metres (656.2 ft) deep where the glacier snout originally existed. Glacial moraines got exposed on both sides of the lagoon. In 1975, the lagoon was about 8 square kilometre in area and now it is reportedly stands at 18 square kilometre at the edge of the glacier tongue.
Geography
The Jökulsárlón lagoon provides outstanding views of the Ice Cap, which is a vast dome of ice that rises to a height of 3000 feet (914.4 m). It spills to the lagoon 12 miles (19.3 km) away from the jagged glacier hill to the edge of the water line. The lagoon developed only about 60 years ago (1948 is mentioned), when the entire area was less than 100 feet (30.5 m) of glacier, which was only 250 yard from the Atlantic Ocean, and 2 miles (3.2 km) away from Vatnajökull . Vatnajökull was at the shore line of the ocean and dropped icebergs into the ocean. However, it started drifting in land rapidly every year leaving deep gorges en route, which got filled with melted water and large chunks of ice. These icebergs gather at the mouth of the lagoon’s shallow exit, melt down into smaller ice cubes and roll out into the sea. The lagoon is the lowest point in Iceland with land at 200 metres (656.2 ft) below sea level. In summer, they melt and roll down the channel into the sea. In winter the lagoon freezes and locks the icebergs in place. Ice water and soil make a unique ecological phenomenon. Jökulsárlón lake or lagoon, the Icelandic “glacier lake” is now reported to have doubled in size in the recent 15-year period. The huge blocks of ice that calve from the edge of Vatnajökull are about 30 metres (98.4 ft) high which fills the lagoon stocked with icebergs. Some icebergs appear naturally sculpted on account volcanic ashes from ancient eruptions that partly cover them.Fjord
Geologically, a fjord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created in a valley carved by glacial activity.-Formation:A fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by rebound of Earth's crust as the ice...
where Vatnajökull is now. This retreat is also posing a threat to the National Highway Route 1 of Iceland. Reykjavík
Reykjavík
Reykjavík is the capital and largest city in Iceland.Its latitude at 64°08' N makes it the world's northernmost capital of a sovereign state. It is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay...
, the capital of Iceland is 250 kilometres (155.3 mi) from the lake and the road between the capital and the lagoon winds through a dozen other glaciers, which are also under retreat. It is 75 kilometres (46.6 mi) to the west of Höfn town
Höfn
Höfn or Höfn í Hornafirði is an Icelandic fishing town in the south-eastern part of the country.As of 2011, the population of the town was 1,641. This harbour town, the second largest in the south-eastern part of Iceland, gives scenic views of Vatnajökull...
and 60 kilometres (37.3 mi) east of Skaftafell National Park. It is accessible by the ring road, Route 1, that goes across the lagoon, and where parking facilities have been provided for visitors. It is also known as the "Tourist Conveyor belt". While walking on the shore, isolated large blocks of icebergs can be seen on the black sand beach.
Protective measures for the bridge
A coffer dam was constructed near the Glacial River Bridge that spans across the Jökulsárlón Lagoon, in order to build a row of protective measures of stone boulders to prevent any erosion of the foundation of the pillars of the bridge. This coffer dam enabled the Icelandic Road Administration to create workable access for the power shovel digger to place the row of stone protective measures, which would also divert the icebergs from hitting the bridge pillars and thus avoid damage to the structure.Features
The icebergs that calve from the glacier edge move towards the river mouth and get entrenched at the bottom. While floating, only about one tenth mass of an iceberg is seen above the water surface. The movement of the icebergs fluctuates with the tide currents. However, they start floating as icebergs when their size is small enough to drift to the sea. These icebergs are seen in two shades, one type in milky white, while the other type is in bright blue colour, which is an interplay of light and ice crystals. Along the coastal road drive to the Jökulsárlón, apart from the mountains adding to the scenic surroundings, the villages seen are the SelfossSelfoss
Selfoss can mean either of the following locations in Iceland:*Selfoss *Selfoss...
, Vik
Vik
Vik is a municipality in the county of Sogn og Fjordane, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Sogn. The administrative center of Vik is the village of Vikøyri.-General information:...
and Kirkjubæjarklaustur
Kirkjubæjarklaustur
The village Kirkjubæjarklaustur is a village in the south of Iceland on the hringvegur between Vík í Mýrdal and Höfn. It is part of the municipality of Skaftárhreppur with approximately 120 inhabitants.-Location:...
. Skógarfoss waterfall and Skaftafell National Park are also seen during the drive through Skeidarársandur; the sand storms generated at the Skeidarársandur are reported to be so powerful that they can strip off the paint of a car.
Fauna
Pinniped
Pinnipeds or fin-footed mammals are a widely distributed and diverse group of semiaquatic marine mammals comprising the families Odobenidae , Otariidae , and Phocidae .-Overview: Pinnipeds are typically sleek-bodied and barrel-shaped...
gather in large numbers at the mouth of the lagoon to catch fish during the winter, which is a sight to watch. Large numbers of sea birds, particularly arctic terns, which nest nearby also gather to catch herring
Herring
Herring is an oily fish of the genus Clupea, found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans, including the Baltic Sea. Three species of Clupea are recognized. The main taxa, the Atlantic herring and the Pacific herring may each be divided into subspecies...
, trout
Trout
Trout is the name for a number of species of freshwater and saltwater fish belonging to the Salmoninae subfamily of the family Salmonidae. Salmon belong to the same family as trout. Most salmon species spend almost all their lives in salt water...
, salmon
Salmon
Salmon is the common name for several species of fish in the family Salmonidae. Several other fish in the same family are called trout; the difference is often said to be that salmon migrate and trout are resident, but this distinction does not strictly hold true...
and other fishes and krill
Krill
Krill is the common name given to the order Euphausiacea of shrimp-like marine crustaceans. Also known as euphausiids, these small invertebrates are found in all oceans of the world...
. Breiðamerkursandur (the large sand deposits in the area) is the main habitat of the skua
Skua
The skuas are a group of seabirds with about seven species forming the family Stercorariidae and the genus Stercorarius. The three smaller skuas are called jaegers in North America....
(Stercorariidae). During the summer season the skuas, which are big seagulls have their nests on the lake's shores. The skuas, fat and dark in colour with white wings, are said to be aggressive "pirate of the seas", which harass other birds (as big as gannets) to have a free meal. They also kill and eat smaller birds like the puffins. They are not afraid of human beings and also do not tolerate human beings close to its nests. It is reported that these birds migrate from their wintering grounds off the coasts of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
. Seals are seen either swimming in the lagoon or lying on icebergs. Many times, the tides carry shoals of herring
Herring
Herring is an oily fish of the genus Clupea, found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans, including the Baltic Sea. Three species of Clupea are recognized. The main taxa, the Atlantic herring and the Pacific herring may each be divided into subspecies...
or capelan into the lagoon by the tide and the birds feast on them.
Ownership
The Jökulsárlón Landowners Association is an organization that represents the owners of the land property Fell, which covers the Jökuklsárlón, also known as the Glacier Lagoon. This property is leased out for filming or any other commercial activity as required.Einar Björn Einarsson is the operator of the boat trips on the Glacier Lagoon. The Landowners Association leases out the site at the lagoon front to this operator to ply the boats on the lagoon.
Boat tours on the Glacier lagoon
1985, after the premiere of the James Bond movie “A view to Kill” marked the start of commercial boat tours on the Glacier lagoon. Guðbrandur Jóhannesson was the one who started doing the tours on Jökulsárlón or the Ice Lagoon as it is sometimes referred to as. Jóhannesson who nowadays owns and operates the company Vatnajökull travel , did the tours for the first two years. In 1987 Fjölnir Torfason and Þorbjörg Arnórsóttir from Hali in Suðursveit took over the operation. Torfason and Arnórsdóttir now operate a guesthouse and the Restaurant/Museum Þórbergssetur about 12 km east of the Lagoon. In the summer of 1987 about 5.000 passengers sailed on the two small vessels operated by the company. The next year an amphibian vehicle LARC-VLARC-V
LARC-V , is an aluminium-hulled amphibious cargo vehicle capable of transporting 5 tons. It was developed in the United States during the 1950s, and is used in a variety of auxiliary roles to this day....
was introduced to the fleet by the Glacier lagoon. In 1995 the number of passengers per year had multiplied and the company then operated 3 amphibian Vehicles. In 1999 the company was sold to Einar Björn Einarsson a local from the nearby town Höfn
Höfn
Höfn or Höfn í Hornafirði is an Icelandic fishing town in the south-eastern part of the country.As of 2011, the population of the town was 1,641. This harbour town, the second largest in the south-eastern part of Iceland, gives scenic views of Vatnajökull...
. In 2006 the fourth amphibian was introduced to the operation. The company Jökulsárlón ehf. now holds about 30 seasonal employees and for the past few years between 60 – 70 thousand passengers have gone on the boat tours every year. Since the first commercial boat tour took place on the Glacier lagoon about 900.000 passengers have taken the excursion offered by the company Jökulsárlón ehf.
In popular culture
Breiðamerkurjökull
Breiðamerkurjökull is an outlet glacier of the larger glacier of Vatnajökull in southeastern Iceland. Emerging as a tongue of the Vatnajökull, it ends in a small lagoon, known as Jökulsárlón. Over time, it has gradually been breaking down....
glacier have been part of the James Bond films
James Bond (film series)
The James Bond film series is a British series of motion pictures based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond , who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming. Earlier films were based on Fleming's novels and short stories, followed later by films with original storylines...
A View to a Kill
A View to a Kill
A View to a Kill is the fourteenth spy film of the James Bond series, and the seventh and last to star Roger Moore as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Although the title is adapted from Ian Fleming's short story "From a View to a Kill", the film is the fourth Bond film after The Spy Who Loved...
(1985) and Die Another Day
Die Another Day
Die Another Day is the 20th spy film in the James Bond series, and the fourth and last film to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond; it is also the last Bond film of the original timeline with the series being rebooted with Casino Royale...
(2002), as well as Batman Begins
Batman Begins
Batman Begins is a 2005 American superhero action film based on the fictional DC Comics character Batman, directed by Christopher Nolan. It stars Christian Bale as Batman, along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Liam Neeson, Katie Holmes, Cillian Murphy, Morgan Freeman, Ken Watanabe, Tom Wilkinson,...
(2005) and Beowulf and Grendel (2005).
The popularity of the glaciers could be attributed to these blockbuster films, to Lara Croft's Tomb Raider
Tomb Raider
Tomb Raider is an action-adventure video game developed by Core Design and published by Eidos Interactive. It was originally released in 1996 for the Sega Saturn, with MS-DOS and PlayStation versions following shortly thereafter...
and also to the popular commercials which have been centred on this location.
Choreographing the car chase scene, which is termed as the greatest movie car chase of all time, between a Jaguar and Aston Martin, a set that was created for the film at the location of the lagoon was a challenge to 'Action Unit' Director Vic Armstrong, of the Bond film Die Another Day.
The popularity of the lagoon has been further boosted by the TV coverage provided live from Jökulsárlón Lagoon on the American TV program Good Morning America
Good Morning America
Good Morning America is an American morning news and talk show that is broadcast on the ABC television network; it debuted on November 3, 1975. The weekday program airs for two hours; a third hour aired between 2007 and 2008 exclusively on ABC News Now...
(American morning news and talk show that is broadcast on the ABC television network) in southeast Iceland, on November 13, 2006. The "amazing landscape” covered on the TV programme not only included Jökulsárlón Lagoon filled with icebergs but also pictures of Antarctica and the polar
Polar
- Science, technology, and mathematics :*Polar , a satellite launched by NASA in 1996*Polar , a strongly magnetic cataclysmic variable star system...
ice caps, which were telecast live from Iceland. This live broadcast, which was made possible by a crew of 30 people, is reported to have been watched by 4 million people.