Leicester's Commonwealth
Encyclopedia
Leicester's Commonwealth (originally titled The Copie of a Leter wryten by a Master of Arts of Cambrige) (1584) is a scurrilous tract that circulated in Elizabethan England and which attacked Queen Elizabeth I's favourite
, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. The work functioned as Roman Catholic propaganda against the political and religious policy of Elizabeth I's regime, in particular the Puritan
sympathies fostered by Leicester. In doing so it portrayed Leicester as an amoral opportunist of "almost satanic malevolence", and circulated lurid stories of his scandalous deeds and his dangerous plots.
The text is presented as "a letter written by a Master of Art of Cambridge to his friend in London, concerning some talk passed of late between two worshipful and grave men about the present state and some proceedings of the Earl of Leicester and his friends in England." The title "Leicester's Commonwealth" was first used in the 1641 edition. The book highly influenced Leicester's historical reputation in the ensuing centuries.
The text quickly veers into an attack on the Earl of Leicester
, making all kinds of accusations against him, most notably a number of murders. His first is that of his wife Amy Robsart
, who according to the tract was found at the bottom of a short flight of stairs with a broken neck, her headdress still standing undisturbed "upon her head". Leicester's hired assassin later confesses while on his death-bed, as "all the devils in hell" tear him in pieces. Meanwhile the assassin's servant, who witnessed the deed, has already been dispatched in prison by Leicester's agents before he could tell the story. With the expert help of his Italian physician, Dr. Giulio, Leicester goes on to remove the husbands of his lovers Lady Douglas Sheffield
and Lettice, Countess of Essex
(ladies referred to as "his Old and his New Testaments"). The Cardinal of Chatillon, Nicholas Throckmorton
, Lady Margaret Lennox, and the Earl of Sussex
are dispatched in the same manner, by poison. After the murder of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex
, Leicester pays Francis Drake
to kill Thomas Doughty
, who knows too much about it (Doughty had been executed by Drake for mutiny at sea).
The work also reveals Leicester's monstrous sexual appetite and his and his new wife's lewd private lives, including abortions, illnesses, and other shortcomings. The death of their little son, which occurred shortly before the book's publication, is commented on with a biblical allusion in a stop press
marginal note: "The children of adulterers shall be consumed, and the seed of a wicked bed shall be rooted out."
A born traitor in the third generation who has "nothing of his own, either of his ancestors, or of himself", Leicester is also accused of sytematically despoiling the lands the queen has granted him, and of ruthlessly extorting money from those unluckly enough to be in his power. The mathematician Thomas Allen
is said to be employing the art of "figuring" to further the earl's unlawful designs and of having endeavoured to bring about a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth
by the black art
. Leicester, a "perpetuall dictator" who hates and terrorizes the helpless queen, is to blame that England has no heir of Elizabeth's body since he has prevented her marriage to a foreign prince. This he did by falsely claiming to be engaged to her and showing her suitors' ambassadors "a most disloyal proof" thereof. Having failed to attain the supreme power through marriage, he—who is of no religion himself—is building up a party of misled Puritans that will assist him to dethrone Elizabeth in favour of his brother-in-law, the Earl of Huntingdon
. On achieving this, he will get rid of Huntingdon and place the crown on his own head. Leicester's immediate arrest and execution is recommended as the most beneficial act the queen could ever do to her country.
As the book progresses, it increasingly becomes a defense of Mary Stuart's succession rights, which by 1584 had become imperilled due to her involvement in several plots to assassinate Elizabeth.
, in charge of Elizabeth's secret service, thought Thomas Morgan
, the exiled agent of Mary Stuart, to be the author when the book first surfaced in August 1584. Dudley likewise believed that Mary was involved in its conception: "Leicester has lately told a friend that he will persecute you to the uttermost", she was informed by one of her spies. The Jesuit Robert Parsons soon became popularly associated with it and it was published under his name in later editions; however he denied authorship in his memoirs, although he was involved in smuggling the book from France to England. Ralph Emerson, a Catholic activist, was arrested in possession of several copies, but could not or would not identify the author when questioned.
Modern editions often suggest that there was no single author, and that several members of the exiled Catholic community based in France wrote the text as a group effort; the chief candidates being Charles Arundel and Charles Paget
.
, who served Philip II of Spain
, wrote on hearing of it: "Instead of the sword which we cannot obtain, we must fight with prayer and pen." These kinds of books, he thought, "ought to be to this Queen of England's annoyance ... who I hope shall have a fall at last".
Elizabeth's government made considerable efforts to suppress the work, but according to D.C. Peck, "from the evidence of the book's circulation and its later effects, however, the government's attempts at suppression must be said largely to have failed." The queen published an official condemnation of the libel: "Her majesty [testifieth] in her conscience, before God, unto you, that her Highness not only knoweth in assured certainty, the libels and books against the said Earl, to be most malicious, false and slanderous, and such as none but the devil himself could deem to be true". She offered an amnesty for anyone who handed in the book, but threatened imprisonment for anyone who was found with it in their possession. Attempts to identify and suppress printing of it in France were unsuccessful, but imported copies were seized and Elizabeth managed to get King James VI of Scotland to impound copies. Nevertheless hand-copied versions of the book circulated widely.
Sir Philip Sidney wrote a defence of his uncle against the attacks in Leicester's Commonwealth. He dismissed most of the charges as alehouse talk and instead concentrated on defending the noble lineage and character of his grandfather John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland; he even rhetorically challenged the author to a duel. Sidney's reply remained unpublished, though. It was eventually printed in Collins's "Sydney Papers" in 1746.
The book highly influenced Leicester's historical reputation, as later writers from William Camden
onwards relied heavily on it. Thus it laid the foundation of a historiographical tradition that depicted the Earl as the classical Machiavelli
an courtier and as the evil spirit of Elizabeth's court.
Favourite
A favourite , or favorite , was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In medieval and Early Modern Europe, among other times and places, the term is used of individuals delegated significant political power by a ruler...
, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. The work functioned as Roman Catholic propaganda against the political and religious policy of Elizabeth I's regime, in particular the Puritan
History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I
The reign of Elizabeth I of England, from 1558 to 1603, saw the rise of the Puritan movement in England, its clash with the authorities of the Church of England, and its temporarily effective suppression in the 1590s by severe judicial means.-Background, to 1559:...
sympathies fostered by Leicester. In doing so it portrayed Leicester as an amoral opportunist of "almost satanic malevolence", and circulated lurid stories of his scandalous deeds and his dangerous plots.
The text is presented as "a letter written by a Master of Art of Cambridge to his friend in London, concerning some talk passed of late between two worshipful and grave men about the present state and some proceedings of the Earl of Leicester and his friends in England." The title "Leicester's Commonwealth" was first used in the 1641 edition. The book highly influenced Leicester's historical reputation in the ensuing centuries.
Content
The book takes the form of a dialogue between a Cambridge scholar, a lawyer, and a gentleman; it begins as a plea for religious toleration, by asserting that Catholics who are loyal to the queen and country should be free to profess their religion. The lawyer, who professes to be a moderate "papist", expresses the view that religious differences do not undermine the patriotism of citizens, giving examples of religiously divided populations who have united to defend their country against external enemies.The text quickly veers into an attack on the Earl of Leicester
Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester
Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, KG was an English nobleman and the favourite and close friend of Elizabeth I from her first year on the throne until his death...
, making all kinds of accusations against him, most notably a number of murders. His first is that of his wife Amy Robsart
Amy Robsart
Amy Dudley was the first wife of Lord Robert Dudley, favourite of Elizabeth I of England. She is primarily known for her death by falling down a flight of stairs, the circumstances of which have often been regarded as suspicious...
, who according to the tract was found at the bottom of a short flight of stairs with a broken neck, her headdress still standing undisturbed "upon her head". Leicester's hired assassin later confesses while on his death-bed, as "all the devils in hell" tear him in pieces. Meanwhile the assassin's servant, who witnessed the deed, has already been dispatched in prison by Leicester's agents before he could tell the story. With the expert help of his Italian physician, Dr. Giulio, Leicester goes on to remove the husbands of his lovers Lady Douglas Sheffield
Lady Douglas Sheffield
Douglas Sheffield , Baroness Sheffield, née Howard, was an English noblewoman and the mother of the explorer and cartographer Sir Robert Dudley, illegitimate son of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester...
and Lettice, Countess of Essex
Lettice Knollys
Lettice Knollys , Countess of Essex and Countess of Leicester , was an English noblewoman and mother to the courtiers Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex and Lady Penelope Rich; through her marriage to Elizabeth I's favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, she incurred the Queen's undying...
(ladies referred to as "his Old and his New Testaments"). The Cardinal of Chatillon, Nicholas Throckmorton
Nicholas Throckmorton
Sir Nicholas Throckmorton was an English diplomat and politician, who was an ambassador to France and played a key role in the relationship between Elizabeth I and Mary, Queen of Scots.-Early years:...
, Lady Margaret Lennox, and the Earl of Sussex
Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex
Thomas Radclyffe 3rd Earl of Sussex was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland during the Tudor period of English history, and a leading courtier during the reign of Elizabeth I.- Family:...
are dispatched in the same manner, by poison. After the murder of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex
Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex
Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, KG , an English nobleman and general. From 1573 until his death he fought in Ireland in connection with the Plantation of Ulster, where he ordered the massacre of Rathlin Island...
, Leicester pays Francis Drake
Francis Drake
Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He also carried out the...
to kill Thomas Doughty
Thomas Doughty (explorer)
Thomas Doughty was an English nobleman, soldier, scholar and personal secretary of Christopher Hatton. His association with Francis Drake, on a 1577 voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, ended in a shipboard trial for treason and witchcraft and Doughty's execution.Although scholars...
, who knows too much about it (Doughty had been executed by Drake for mutiny at sea).
The work also reveals Leicester's monstrous sexual appetite and his and his new wife's lewd private lives, including abortions, illnesses, and other shortcomings. The death of their little son, which occurred shortly before the book's publication, is commented on with a biblical allusion in a stop press
Stop press
"Stop Press" is a phrase stemming from the printed news media as an exclamation signifying the discovery of the need to change the content of an issue just before, or during its printing...
marginal note: "The children of adulterers shall be consumed, and the seed of a wicked bed shall be rooted out."
A born traitor in the third generation who has "nothing of his own, either of his ancestors, or of himself", Leicester is also accused of sytematically despoiling the lands the queen has granted him, and of ruthlessly extorting money from those unluckly enough to be in his power. The mathematician Thomas Allen
Thomas Allen (mathematician)
Thomas Allen was an English mathematician and astrologer.-Life:He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1561; and graduated as M.A. in 1567...
is said to be employing the art of "figuring" to further the earl's unlawful designs and of having endeavoured to bring about a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth
Elizabeth I of England
Elizabeth I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty...
by the black art
Black magic
Black magic is the type of magic that draws on assumed malevolent powers or is used with the intention to kill, steal, injure, cause misfortune or destruction, or for personal gain without regard to harmful consequences. As a term, "black magic" is normally used by those that do not approve of its...
. Leicester, a "perpetuall dictator" who hates and terrorizes the helpless queen, is to blame that England has no heir of Elizabeth's body since he has prevented her marriage to a foreign prince. This he did by falsely claiming to be engaged to her and showing her suitors' ambassadors "a most disloyal proof" thereof. Having failed to attain the supreme power through marriage, he—who is of no religion himself—is building up a party of misled Puritans that will assist him to dethrone Elizabeth in favour of his brother-in-law, the Earl of Huntingdon
Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon
Sir Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, KG KB was the eldest son of Francis Hastings, 2nd Earl of Huntingdon and Catherine Pole.-Ancestry:...
. On achieving this, he will get rid of Huntingdon and place the crown on his own head. Leicester's immediate arrest and execution is recommended as the most beneficial act the queen could ever do to her country.
As the book progresses, it increasingly becomes a defense of Mary Stuart's succession rights, which by 1584 had become imperilled due to her involvement in several plots to assassinate Elizabeth.
Authorship
The authorship of the pamphlet was much disputed. Francis WalsinghamFrancis Walsingham
Sir Francis Walsingham was Principal Secretary to Elizabeth I of England from 1573 until 1590, and is popularly remembered as her "spymaster". Walsingham is frequently cited as one of the earliest practitioners of modern intelligence methods both for espionage and for domestic security...
, in charge of Elizabeth's secret service, thought Thomas Morgan
Thomas Morgan (of Llantarnam)
Thomas Morgan of Llantarnam , of the Welsh Morgan of Monmouthshire, was a confidant and spy for Mary, Queen of Scots, and was involved in the Babington plot to kill Queen Elizabeth I of England....
, the exiled agent of Mary Stuart, to be the author when the book first surfaced in August 1584. Dudley likewise believed that Mary was involved in its conception: "Leicester has lately told a friend that he will persecute you to the uttermost", she was informed by one of her spies. The Jesuit Robert Parsons soon became popularly associated with it and it was published under his name in later editions; however he denied authorship in his memoirs, although he was involved in smuggling the book from France to England. Ralph Emerson, a Catholic activist, was arrested in possession of several copies, but could not or would not identify the author when questioned.
Modern editions often suggest that there was no single author, and that several members of the exiled Catholic community based in France wrote the text as a group effort; the chief candidates being Charles Arundel and Charles Paget
Charles Paget (conspirator)
Charles Paget was a Roman Catholic conspirator, involved in the Babington plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I of England.He was also a double agent working for Sir Francis Walsingham....
.
Suppression
The work was welcomed by exiled Catholics as the best weapon they had; Francis EnglefieldFrancis Englefield
Sir Francis Englefield was an English Roman Catholic politician.Born probably about 1520, he was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Englefield of Englefield, Berkshire, justice of the common pleas. His mother was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Robert Throckmorton, one of the well-known Catholic family of...
, who served Philip II of Spain
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
, wrote on hearing of it: "Instead of the sword which we cannot obtain, we must fight with prayer and pen." These kinds of books, he thought, "ought to be to this Queen of England's annoyance ... who I hope shall have a fall at last".
Elizabeth's government made considerable efforts to suppress the work, but according to D.C. Peck, "from the evidence of the book's circulation and its later effects, however, the government's attempts at suppression must be said largely to have failed." The queen published an official condemnation of the libel: "Her majesty [testifieth] in her conscience, before God, unto you, that her Highness not only knoweth in assured certainty, the libels and books against the said Earl, to be most malicious, false and slanderous, and such as none but the devil himself could deem to be true". She offered an amnesty for anyone who handed in the book, but threatened imprisonment for anyone who was found with it in their possession. Attempts to identify and suppress printing of it in France were unsuccessful, but imported copies were seized and Elizabeth managed to get King James VI of Scotland to impound copies. Nevertheless hand-copied versions of the book circulated widely.
Sir Philip Sidney wrote a defence of his uncle against the attacks in Leicester's Commonwealth. He dismissed most of the charges as alehouse talk and instead concentrated on defending the noble lineage and character of his grandfather John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland; he even rhetorically challenged the author to a duel. Sidney's reply remained unpublished, though. It was eventually printed in Collins's "Sydney Papers" in 1746.
The book highly influenced Leicester's historical reputation, as later writers from William Camden
William Camden
William Camden was an English antiquarian, historian, topographer, and officer of arms. He wrote the first chorographical survey of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland and the first detailed historical account of the reign of Elizabeth I of England.- Early years :Camden was born in London...
onwards relied heavily on it. Thus it laid the foundation of a historiographical tradition that depicted the Earl as the classical Machiavelli
Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian historian, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic...
an courtier and as the evil spirit of Elizabeth's court.