Léon M'ba
Encyclopedia
Gabriel Léon M'ba (9 February 1902 – 27 November 1967) was the first Prime Minister (1959–1961) and President (1961–1967) of Gabon
. A member of the Fang ethnic group, M'ba was born into a relatively privileged village family. After studying at a seminary
, he held a number of small jobs before entering the colonial administration as a customs agent. His political activism in favor of black people worried the French administration, and as a punishment for his activities, he was issued a prison sentence after committing a minor crime that normally would have resulted in a small fine. In 1924, the administration gave M'ba a second chance and selected him to head the canton in Estuaire Province
. After being accused of complicit
y with regards to the murder of a woman near Libreville, he was sentenced in 1931 to three years in prison and 10 years in exile. While in exile in Oubangui-Chari, he published works documenting tribal customary law
of the Fang people. He was employed by local administrators, and received praise from his superiors for his work. He remained a persona non grata
to Gabon until the French colonial administration finally allowed M'ba to return his native country in 1946.
In 1946, he began his political ascent, being appointed prime minister on 21 May 1957. He served as this until 21 February 1961. In 1958, he directed an initiative to include Gabon in the Franco-African community further than before. He became president upon independence from France on 17 August 1960. Political nemesis Jean-Hilaire Aubame
briefly assumed the office of president by way of a coup d'état
in February 1964, but order was restored days later when the French intervened. M'ba was reelected in March 1967, but died of cancer in November 1967 and was succeeded by his vice president, Albert-Bernard Bongo
.
.jpg)
A member of the Fang ethnic tribe, M'ba was born on 9 February 1902 in Libreville
, Gabon
. His father, a small business
manager and village chief, once worked as the hairdresser to Franco-Italian explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza
. His mother, Louise Bendome, was a seamstress. Both were educated and were among the first "evolved couples" in Libreville. M'ba's brother also played an important role in the colonial hierarchy; he was Gabon's first Roman Catholic
priest.
In 1909, M'ba joined a seminary
to receive his primary education
. From 1920, he was employed as a store manager, a lumberjack
and trader before entering the French colonial administration as a customs agent
. Despite his good job performance, M'ba's activism in helping black Gabonians, particularly for the Fangs, worried his superiors. In September 1922, M'ba wrote to Edmond Cadier, Lieutenant-Governor of Gabon:
His remarks upset authorities, and he suffered the consequences in December 1922, when he was sentenced to prison
after having committed a minor crime of providing a colleague with falsified documents.
and defend the general interest" and that he did "not accept that people transgress the orders received from the authority that I represent."
M'ba did not have an idealist vision of his job; he saw it as a way to become wealthy. With his colleague Ambamamy, he forced labour on the residents of the canton for his personal use, to cover his large expenditures. The colonial administration was aware of the embezzlement
, but they chose to overlook it. However, beginning in 1929, the colonial administration started to investigate his activities after they intercepted one of his letters to a Kouyaté, secretary for the Ligue des droits de l'homme, who was accused of being an ally of the Comintern
. Despite this suspected Communist alliance, the French authorities did not oppose M'ba's appointment as head chief of the Estuaire Province
by his colleagues.
In those years, M'ba, a member of the Ligue, distanced himself from Roman Catholicism, but did not break completely with his faith. He instead became a follower of the Bwiti
religious sect, which Fangs were particularly receptive to. He believed this would help revitalise a society which was damaged by the colonial administration. In 1931, the sect was accused of murdering a woman whose remains were discovered outside a market in Libreville. Accused of complicit
y, even though his involvement in the crime was not proven, M'ba was removed from power and sentenced to three years in prison and ten years of exile
. Officially this was for embezzlement of tax revenues and his abusive treatment of the local labour force.
While exiled in the French territory of Oubangui-Chari
, first in the towns of Bambari
and then Bria
, he continued to exert influence among Fangs via correspondence with his compatriots in Libreville. Worried by the situation, Governor-General Antonetti ordered in 1934, at the end of his prison sentence, that M'ba be placed under surveillance.
During his years in exile, he wrote about the customary rights of the Fang people in the "Essai de droit coutumier pahouin" (Essay of Pahouin customary rights) and published it in Bulletin de la société des recherches congolaises in 1938. This work quickly became the main reference on Fang tribal customary law
. By 1939, the native ex-chief remained a persona non grata
to Gabon, as stated in the letter from the head of the Estuarie Department, Assier de Pompignan:
In spite of being in exile, M'ba was employed by local administrators. Placed in secondary offices and having no proper power, he was an accomplished and valuable employee. Thanks to praiseworthy reports from his superiors, he was once again seen as a reliable indigenous element on which the colonial administration could rely on. In 1942, a sentence reduction was granted to him. Following his release, he became a civil servant in Brazzaville
, where his prestige increased.
In 1946, M'ba returned to Gabon, where he was greeted exultantly by his friends. He was not reinstated as chef de canton; instead, he obtained an important position as store manager for the English trading house John Holt
. That same year, he founded the Comité Mixte Gabonais (Gabonese Mixed Committee; CMG), a political party close to the African Democratic Rally
(RDA), an inter-African party led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny
. The party's main objective was to obtain autonomy for its member states and oppose the Senegal
ese leader Léopold Sédar Senghor
's idea of federalism
. Playing on his past as a former exile, and through the network of Bwiti followers, M'ba managed to rally support from the Fang and Myènè peoples. His goal was to win indigenous administrative and judicial posts.
Based on his success in Libreville, M'ba aspired, at one point, to become the head of the region, an idea which many notable Fangs supported during the Pahouin congress at Mitzic in February 1947. However, the colonial authorities refused to give him the position. Due to his relations with the RDA, which was linked to the French Communist Party
, M'Ba was seen as a communist and propagandist in the colony; for the authorities, these suspicions had been confirmed when M'ba was involved in the 1949 RDA congress in Abidjan
.
In 1951, the CMG decided to break its ties with the Communists, siding with the moderate position favored by Houphouët-Boigny while he did the same. At the same time M'ba, while maintaining his "rebellious" image to the electorate, became close with the French administration. However, the administration was already supporting his main opponent, Congressman Jean-Hilaire Aubame
, who was M'ba's protégé
and his half-brother's foster son
. In the legislative elections of 17 June 1951, Aubame was easily re-elected, as M'ba only received 3,257 votes, just 11% of the electorate. In the territorial elections of March 1952, Aubame's l'Union démocratique et sociale gabonaise (UDSG; Gabonese Social and Democratic Union) won 14 of the 24 contested seats, against two for the CMG; however, the CMG received 57% of the votes cast in Libreville.
Initially rejected by the Territorial Assembly, M'ba allied himself with French representatives in the assembly. However, using his charismatic traits and his reputation as a "man of the people", he managed to win a seat there in 1952.
He left the CMG to join the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG) led by Paul Gondjout
in 1954, whom M'ba intended to overthrow. Gondjout, the secretary of the BDG, appointed M'ba secretary-general and formed a long term alliance against Aubame. In the legislative elections of 2 January 1956, M'ba received 36% of the votes versus 47% for Aubame. Though not elected, M'ba became the leader of the indigenous territory, and some of the UDSG began to ally themselves with him.
In the municipal elections of 1956, M'ba received support from the French logging industry, especially Roland Bru, and was elected mayor of Libreville
with 65.5% of the vote. On 23 November he was appointed the first mayor of the capital. This has been cited as the BDG's first significant victory over the UDSG. In the French practie of holding multiple posts known as cumul des positions, M'ba served as both mayor and deputy.
In the territorial elections of March 1957, his reputation as a "forester's man" worked against him; the BDG finished second again, winning 16 of the 40 contested seats, against 18 for the UDSG. Bru and other French foresters bribed several UDSG deputies to switch their political party to the BDG. M'ba's party won 21 seats against 19 for Aubame's party after a recount. However, in the absence of an absolute majority, both parties were obliged to submit on 21 May 1957, a list of individuals that both agreed were suitable for election into the government. That same day, M'ba was appointed vice president of the government council under the French governor. Soon, divisions grew within the government, and Aubame resigned from his position and filed a motion of censure
against the government. The motion was rejected by a 21–19 vote. With M'ba's victory, many elected UDSG members joined the parliamentary majority, giving the party a majority with 29 of the 40 legislative seats. Well installed in the government, he slowly began to reinforce his power.
After voting in favor of the Franco-African Community
, similar to the British Commonwealth, in the constitutional referendum
of 28 September 1958, Gabon became pseudo-politically independent. French journalist Pierre Péan
asserted that M'ba secretly tried to prevent Gabonese independence; instead, he lobbied for it to become an overseas territory of France. In December 1958, the Assembly voted to establish the legislature, and then promulgated the constitution of the Republic of Gabon on 19 February 1959. On 27 February, M'ba was appointed Prime Minister. After M'ba openly declared for the departmentalization of Gabon in November 1959, Jacques Foccart
, Charles de Gaulle
's spin-doctor for African policy, told him that this solution was unthinkable. M'ba then decided to adopt a new flag by affixing the design of the national tree, the Angouma
, over the French flag. Again, Foccart, as a loyal Frenchman, refused.
From July 1958, a third political force tried to establish itself in Gabon: the Parti d'Union Nationale Gabonais (PUNGA), led by René-Paul Sousatte and Jean-Jacques Boucavel, created attempting to unite the southern Gabonese against the established BDG and UDSG. It was also supported by former UDSG members, "radical" students, and trade unionists. Though it voted against the constitutional referendum, PUNGA organised several events geared toward gaining independence and the holding of more parliamentary elections, which were also supported by the UDSG. In March 1960, after independence had already been obtained, M'ba cracked down on PUNGA, claiming its goal had already been reached. He filed an arrest warrant
for Sousatte for conspiring against him and searched the houses of UDSG members, who he accused of complicity. Intimidated, three deputies of the UDSG joined the majority.
, a form of bloc voting
in which each party offers a list of candidates who the population vote for; the list that obtains a majority of votes is declared the winner and obtains all the contested seats. Through the redistricting
of district and constituency boundaries, the BDG arbitrarily received 244 seats, while the UDSG received 77. In the month before full political independence of Gabon was achieved on 13 August, M'ba signed 15 cooperation agreements with France, pertaining to national defense, technical cooperation, economic support, access to materials, and national stability. On 17 August, independence was proclaimed. However, the Prime Minister realistically declared on 12 August, "We must not waste our chances by imagining that with independence, we now own a powerful fetish that will fulfill our wishes. In believing that with independence everything becomes easy and possible, there is a danger of descending into anarchy, disorder, poverty, famine."
M'ba aspired to establish a democratic regime, which, in his view, was necessary for the development and attraction of investments in Gabon. He attempted to reconcile the imperatives of democracy and the necessity for a strong and coherent government. Yet in practice, the regime showed a fundamental weakness in attaining M'ba's goal in which he, who had by this time become known as "the old man", or "the boss", would have a high degree of authority. A cult of personality
developed steadily around M'ba; songs were sung in his praise and stamps and loincloths were printed with his effigy
. His photograph was displayed in stores and hotels across Gabon, in government buildings hung next to that of de Gaulle.
In November 1960, a crisis broke out within the majority party. After deciding to reshuffle the cabinet
without consulting Parliament, the president of the National Assembly, Paul Gondjout, a previous ally of M'ba's, filed a motion of censure
. Gondjout supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage, and specifically sought the establishment of a strong parliament and a prime minister with executive power
. M'ba, who did not share these ideas, reacted repressively. On 16 November, under the pretext of a conspiracy, he declared a state of emergency
, ordering the internment
of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after. Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961. Gondjout was sentenced to two years in prison. Sousatte, who also opposed the constitution, was also sentenced to the same amount of jail time. Upon their releases, M'ba appointed Gondjout president of the economic council and Sousatte Minister of Agriculture, both mostly symbolic posts.
to replace André Gustave Anguilé
.
On 21 February 1961, a new constitution was unanimously adopted, providing for a "hyperpresidential" regime. M'ba now had full executive powers: he could appoint ministers whose functions and responsibilities were decided by him; he could dissolve the National Assembly by choice or prolong its term beyond the normal five years; he could declare a state of emergency
when he believed the need arose, though for this amendment he would have to consult the people via a referendum. This was, in fact, very similar to the constitution adopted in favor of Fulbert Youlou
at roughly the same time. A report from the French secret service summarized the situation as follows:
The new constitution and the National Union (a political union they founded) suspended the quarrels between M'ba and Aubame from 1961 to 1963. Despite this, political unrest grew within the population, and many students held demonstrations on the frequent dissolutions of the National Assembly and the general political attitude in the country. The president did not hesitate to enforce the law himself; with a chicotte
, he whipped citizens who did not show respect for him, including passersby who "forgot" to salute him. In addition, in February 1961, he decreed the internment of approximately 20 people for these demonstrations.
On 9 February 1963, the President pardon
ed those arrested during the political crisis of November 1960. On 19 February, he broke his ties with Aubame; all UDSG representatives were dismissed, with the exception of M'ba supporter Francis Meye. In an attempt to oust Aubame from his legislative seat, M'ba appointed him President of the Supreme Court on 25 February. Thereafter, M'ba claimed that Aubame had resigned from the National Assembly, citing incompatibility with parliamentary functions. Aubame resolved the problem by resigning from his post on the Supreme Court, complicating matters for M'ba. Faced with reports of tension between the government and the National Assembly, even though 70% of it were BDG members, the Gabonese president dissolved the legislature on 21 January 1964 as an "economy measure".
The electoral conditions were announced as such: The election 67 districts were reduced to 47. M'ba disqualified Aubame by announcing anyone who held a post recently was banned. Any party would have to submit 47 candidates who had to pay US$160 or none at all. Thus, over US$7,500 would be deposited without considering campaign expenses. M'ba's idea was that no party other than his would have the money to enter candidates. In response to this, the opposition announced its refusal to participate in elections that they did not consider fair.
From the night of 17 February to the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 Gabonese military personnel, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, arrested President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann
, French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer, On Radio Libreville, the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d'état
had taken place, and that they required technical assistance and told the French not interfere in this matter. M'ba was instructed to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat. "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits", he said. "It came to a boil."
During these events, no gunshots were fired. The people did not react strongly, which according to the military, was a sign of approval. A provisional government was formed, and the presidency was offered to Aubame. The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Paul Gondjout. The plotters were content to ensure security for civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene in the coup; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.
Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Ndjolé
, Aubame's electoral stronghold. However, due to heavy rain, the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village. The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné
. Several hours later, they returned to Libreville. The new head of government quickly contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals was protected and to ask him to prevent any French military intervention.
But in Paris, de Gaulle decided otherwise. M'ba was one of the most loyal allies to France in Africa. While visiting France in 1961, M'ba said: "All Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon." Moreover, under his regime, Europeans enjoyed particularly friendly treatment. The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government. Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon. Since M'ba was otherwise occupied, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, Paul Marie Yembit, who had not been arrested. However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter that Yembit would later sign, confirming their intervention. Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in Dakar
and Brazzaville
landed in Libreville and restored M'ba back into power. Over the course of the operation, one French soldier was killed, while 15 to 25 died on the Gabonese side.
and 10 years of exile.
Despite these events, legislative elections, which were planned before the coup, were held in April 1964. The major opposition parties were deprived of their leaders, who were prevented from participating in the elections due to their involvement in the coup. The UDSG disappeared from the political scene, and the opposition consisted of parties that lacked national focus and maintained only regional or pro-democracy platforms. The opposition still won 46% of the votes and 16 of 47 seats, while the BDG received 54% of the vote and 31 seats in the assembly.
His French friends constantly surrounded him, protecting or providing him with counsel. A presidential guard was created by Bob Maloubier, a former French secret agent
, and co-financed by French oil groups. The oil groups, active in the country since 1957, had strengthened their interests in 1962 after the discovery of offshore oil deposits. Gabon quickly became a major oil supplier for France. They carried such influence in Gabon that following the February 1964 coup, the decision to seek military intervention was taken by the CEO
of Union Générale des Pétroles (UGP; now known as Elf Aquitaine
), Pierre Guillaumat
, Foccart, and other French businessmen and leaders. Later on, another UGP executive, Guy Ponsaillé, was appointed as political adviser to the president and became M'ba's representative in discussions with French companies. However, the Gabonese president was afraid of internal strife or assassaination, so he remained secluded inside his heavily defended presidential palace. Ponsaillé helped M'ba obtain support from political moderates
and accompanied him in his visits around the country in order to restore his reputation among the Gabonese people.
French ambassador Cousseran and American ambassador Charles F. Darlington, suspected of sympathizing with Aubame, left shortly after the coup. The new French ambassador François Simon de Quirielle, a "traditional diplomat", was determined not to interfere in the internal affairs of Gabon. After a few months of misunderstandings with de Quirielle, M'ba contacted Foccart to tell him that he could no longer work with the Ambassador. Foccart recounted the events in his memoirs, Foccart Speaks:
As a result of this incident, Foccart appointed a "colonialist", Maurice Delauney, as the new French Ambassador to Gabon.
From 1965, the French began looking for a successor for M'ba, who was aging and sick. They found the perfect candidate in Albert Bernard Bongo, a young leader in the President's cabinet. Bongo was personally "tested" by General de Gaulle in 1965, during a visit to the Élysée Palace
. Confirmed as M'ba's successor, Bongo was appointed on 24 September 1965 as Presidential Representative and placed in charge of defence and coordination.
In August 1966, M'ba was admitted to the Hôpital Charles Bernard, a hospital in Paris. Despite his inability to govern, the president clung to his power. Only after a long insistence by Foccart did M'ba agree to appoint Bongo as Vice President in replacement of Yembit, announcing his decision through a radio and television message recorded in his room on 14 November 1966. A constitutional reform in February 1967 legitimized Bongo as M'ba's successor. The preparations for the succession were finalized by the early legislative and presidential elections held on 19 March 1967. Since no one dared to stand on the opposition ticket, M'ba was reelected with 99.9% of the vote, while the BDG won all seats in the Assembly.
On 27 November 1967, just days after he took his presidential oath at the Gabonese embassy, M'ba died from cancer
in Paris, where he had been hospitalized since August of that year. He is survived by his wife, Pauline M'ba, and 11 children. The day after M'ba's death, Bongo constitutionally succeeded him as President of Gabon. Gabon's main airport, the Leon M'ba International Airport
, was later named for him.
Forty years after his death, the Léon M'ba Memorial was built in Libreville to honor his memory. President Bongo laid the cornerstone for the Memorial on 9 February 2007, and it was inaugurated by Bongo on 27 November 2007. In February 2008, it was opened to the public. In addition to serving as a mausoleum
for M'ba, the Memorial is a cultural center.
Gabon
Gabon , officially the Gabonese Republic is a state in west central Africa sharing borders with Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, and with the Republic of the Congo curving around the east and south. The Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean is to the west...
. A member of the Fang ethnic group, M'ba was born into a relatively privileged village family. After studying at a seminary
Seminary
A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is an institution of secondary or post-secondary education for educating students in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy or for other ministry...
, he held a number of small jobs before entering the colonial administration as a customs agent. His political activism in favor of black people worried the French administration, and as a punishment for his activities, he was issued a prison sentence after committing a minor crime that normally would have resulted in a small fine. In 1924, the administration gave M'ba a second chance and selected him to head the canton in Estuaire Province
Estuaire Province
Estuaire is one of Gabon's nine provinces. It covers an area of 20,740 km². The provincial capital is Libreville, which is also the national capital. The province is named for the Gabon Estuary, which is at the heart of the province....
. After being accused of complicit
Complicit
An individual is complicit in a crime if he/she is aware of its occurrence and has the ability to report the crime, but fails to do so. As such, the individual effectively allows criminals to carry out a crime despite possibly being able to stop them, either directly or by contacting the...
y with regards to the murder of a woman near Libreville, he was sentenced in 1931 to three years in prison and 10 years in exile. While in exile in Oubangui-Chari, he published works documenting tribal customary law
Custom (law)
Custom in law is the established pattern of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting. A claim can be carried out in defense of "what has always been done and accepted by law." Customary law exists where:...
of the Fang people. He was employed by local administrators, and received praise from his superiors for his work. He remained a persona non grata
Persona non grata
Persona non grata , literally meaning "an unwelcome person", is a legal term used in diplomacy that indicates a proscription against a person entering the country...
to Gabon until the French colonial administration finally allowed M'ba to return his native country in 1946.
In 1946, he began his political ascent, being appointed prime minister on 21 May 1957. He served as this until 21 February 1961. In 1958, he directed an initiative to include Gabon in the Franco-African community further than before. He became president upon independence from France on 17 August 1960. Political nemesis Jean-Hilaire Aubame
Jean-Hilaire Aubame
Jean-Hilaire Aubame was a Gabonese politician active during both the colonial and independence periods. The French journalist Pierre Péan said that Aubame's training "as a practicing Catholic and a customs official helped to make him an integrated man, one of whom political power was not an end in...
briefly assumed the office of president by way of a coup d'état
1964 Gabon coup d'état
The 1964 Gabon coup d'état was staged between 17 and 18 February 1964 by Gabonese military officers who rose against Gabonese President Léon M'ba. Before the coup, Gabon was seen as one of the most politically stable countries in Africa...
in February 1964, but order was restored days later when the French intervened. M'ba was reelected in March 1967, but died of cancer in November 1967 and was succeeded by his vice president, Albert-Bernard Bongo
Omar Bongo
El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba , born as Albert-Bernard Bongo, was a Gabonese politician who was President of Gabon for 42 years from 1967 until his death in office in 2009....
.
Early life
Libreville
Libreville is the capital and largest city of Gabon, in west central Africa. The city is a port on the Komo River, near the Gulf of Guinea, and a trade center for a timber region. As of 2005, it has a population of 578,156.- History :...
, Gabon
Gabon
Gabon , officially the Gabonese Republic is a state in west central Africa sharing borders with Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, and with the Republic of the Congo curving around the east and south. The Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean is to the west...
. His father, a small business
Small business
A small business is a business that is privately owned and operated, with a small number of employees and relatively low volume of sales. Small businesses are normally privately owned corporations, partnerships, or sole proprietorships...
manager and village chief, once worked as the hairdresser to Franco-Italian explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza
Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza
Pietro Paolo Savorgnan di Brazzà, best known as Pierre Paul François Camille Savorgnan de Brazza , was a Franco-Italian explorer, born in Italy and later naturalized Frenchman...
. His mother, Louise Bendome, was a seamstress. Both were educated and were among the first "evolved couples" in Libreville. M'ba's brother also played an important role in the colonial hierarchy; he was Gabon's first Roman Catholic
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
priest.
In 1909, M'ba joined a seminary
Seminary
A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is an institution of secondary or post-secondary education for educating students in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy or for other ministry...
to receive his primary education
Primary education
A primary school is an institution in which children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational,...
. From 1920, he was employed as a store manager, a lumberjack
Lumberjack
A lumberjack is a worker in the logging industry who performs the initial harvesting and transport of trees for ultimate processing into forest products. The term usually refers to a bygone era when hand tools were used in harvesting trees principally from virgin forest...
and trader before entering the French colonial administration as a customs agent
Customs officer
A customs officer is a law enforcement agent who enforces customs laws, on behalf of a government.-Hong Kong:4 931 posts, of which nine are directorate officers, 3 804 are members of the Customs and Excise Department, 504 are Trade Controls Officers and 614 are staff of the General and Common...
. Despite his good job performance, M'ba's activism in helping black Gabonians, particularly for the Fangs, worried his superiors. In September 1922, M'ba wrote to Edmond Cadier, Lieutenant-Governor of Gabon:
His remarks upset authorities, and he suffered the consequences in December 1922, when he was sentenced to prison
Sentence (law)
In law, a sentence forms the final explicit act of a judge-ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime...
after having committed a minor crime of providing a colleague with falsified documents.
Chef de canton
In either 1924 or 1926, M'ba reconciled with colonial authorities and was chosen to succeed the deceased chef de canton (similar to a village chief) of Libreville's Fang neighbourhood. As the leader of a group of young Libreville intellectuals, he ignored the advice of elder Fangs and quickly gained a reputation as a strong, confident, and able-minded man. He once wrote in a letter that he was "[m]issioned to enforce public orderSocial order
Social order is a concept used in sociology, history and other social sciences. It refers to a set of linked social structures, social institutions and social practices which conserve, maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and behaving....
and defend the general interest" and that he did "not accept that people transgress the orders received from the authority that I represent."
M'ba did not have an idealist vision of his job; he saw it as a way to become wealthy. With his colleague Ambamamy, he forced labour on the residents of the canton for his personal use, to cover his large expenditures. The colonial administration was aware of the embezzlement
Embezzlement
Embezzlement is the act of dishonestly appropriating or secreting assets by one or more individuals to whom such assets have been entrusted....
, but they chose to overlook it. However, beginning in 1929, the colonial administration started to investigate his activities after they intercepted one of his letters to a Kouyaté, secretary for the Ligue des droits de l'homme, who was accused of being an ally of the Comintern
Comintern
The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern, also known as the Third International, was an international communist organization initiated in Moscow during March 1919...
. Despite this suspected Communist alliance, the French authorities did not oppose M'ba's appointment as head chief of the Estuaire Province
Estuaire Province
Estuaire is one of Gabon's nine provinces. It covers an area of 20,740 km². The provincial capital is Libreville, which is also the national capital. The province is named for the Gabon Estuary, which is at the heart of the province....
by his colleagues.
In those years, M'ba, a member of the Ligue, distanced himself from Roman Catholicism, but did not break completely with his faith. He instead became a follower of the Bwiti
Bwiti
Bwiti is a West Central African spiritual practice by the forest-dwelling Babongo and Mitsogo people of Gabon, where it is counted as one of the three official religions, and the Fang people of Gabon and Cameroon...
religious sect, which Fangs were particularly receptive to. He believed this would help revitalise a society which was damaged by the colonial administration. In 1931, the sect was accused of murdering a woman whose remains were discovered outside a market in Libreville. Accused of complicit
Complicit
An individual is complicit in a crime if he/she is aware of its occurrence and has the ability to report the crime, but fails to do so. As such, the individual effectively allows criminals to carry out a crime despite possibly being able to stop them, either directly or by contacting the...
y, even though his involvement in the crime was not proven, M'ba was removed from power and sentenced to three years in prison and ten years of exile
Exile
Exile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
. Officially this was for embezzlement of tax revenues and his abusive treatment of the local labour force.
Exile in Oubangui-Chari
Oubangui-Chari
Oubangui-Chari, or Ubangi-Shari, was a French territory in central Africa which later became the independent Central African Republic . French activity in the area began in 1889 with the establishment of an outpost at Bangui, now the capital of CAR. The territory was named in 1894.In 1903, French...
, first in the towns of Bambari
Bambari
Bambari is a town in the Central African Republic, lying on the Ouaka River. It has a population of 41,356 and is the capital of Ouaka prefecture...
and then Bria
Bria
Bria is the capital of Haute-Kotto, one of the 14 prefectures of the Central African Republic. In the 2003 census the town had a population of 35,204.See also: prefectures of the Central African Republic...
, he continued to exert influence among Fangs via correspondence with his compatriots in Libreville. Worried by the situation, Governor-General Antonetti ordered in 1934, at the end of his prison sentence, that M'ba be placed under surveillance.
During his years in exile, he wrote about the customary rights of the Fang people in the "Essai de droit coutumier pahouin" (Essay of Pahouin customary rights) and published it in Bulletin de la société des recherches congolaises in 1938. This work quickly became the main reference on Fang tribal customary law
Custom (law)
Custom in law is the established pattern of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting. A claim can be carried out in defense of "what has always been done and accepted by law." Customary law exists where:...
. By 1939, the native ex-chief remained a persona non grata
Persona non grata
Persona non grata , literally meaning "an unwelcome person", is a legal term used in diplomacy that indicates a proscription against a person entering the country...
to Gabon, as stated in the letter from the head of the Estuarie Department, Assier de Pompignan:
In spite of being in exile, M'ba was employed by local administrators. Placed in secondary offices and having no proper power, he was an accomplished and valuable employee. Thanks to praiseworthy reports from his superiors, he was once again seen as a reliable indigenous element on which the colonial administration could rely on. In 1942, a sentence reduction was granted to him. Following his release, he became a civil servant in Brazzaville
Brazzaville
-Transport:The city is home to Maya-Maya Airport and a railway station on the Congo-Ocean Railway. It is also an important river port, with ferries sailing to Kinshasa and to Bangui via Impfondo...
, where his prestige increased.
Return to Gabon and local politician
John Holt Plc
John Holt plc is a Nigerian conglomerate. It has been an important participant in many areas of the economy. The Nigerian company is a subsidiary of John Holt & Co. Ltd, a United Kingdom company...
. That same year, he founded the Comité Mixte Gabonais (Gabonese Mixed Committee; CMG), a political party close to the African Democratic Rally
African Democratic Rally
The African Democratic Rally was a political party in French West Africa, led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Founded in Bamako in 1946, the RDA quickly became one of the most important forces for independence in the region. Initially a Pan-Africanist movement, the RDA ceased to function as a...
(RDA), an inter-African party led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny
Félix Houphouët-Boigny
Félix Houphouët-Boigny , affectionately called Papa Houphouët or Le Vieux, was the first President of Côte d'Ivoire. Originally a village chief, he worked as a doctor, an administrator of a plantation, and a union leader, before being elected to the French Parliament and serving in a number of...
. The party's main objective was to obtain autonomy for its member states and oppose the Senegal
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
ese leader Léopold Sédar Senghor
Léopold Sédar Senghor
Léopold Sédar Senghor was a Senegalese poet, politician, and cultural theorist who for two decades served as the first president of Senegal . Senghor was the first African elected as a member of the Académie française. Before independence, he founded the political party called the Senegalese...
's idea of federalism
Federalism
Federalism is a political concept in which a group of members are bound together by covenant with a governing representative head. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system of the government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and...
. Playing on his past as a former exile, and through the network of Bwiti followers, M'ba managed to rally support from the Fang and Myènè peoples. His goal was to win indigenous administrative and judicial posts.
Based on his success in Libreville, M'ba aspired, at one point, to become the head of the region, an idea which many notable Fangs supported during the Pahouin congress at Mitzic in February 1947. However, the colonial authorities refused to give him the position. Due to his relations with the RDA, which was linked to the French Communist Party
French Communist Party
The French Communist Party is a political party in France which advocates the principles of communism.Although its electoral support has declined in recent decades, the PCF retains a large membership, behind only that of the Union for a Popular Movement , and considerable influence in French...
, M'Ba was seen as a communist and propagandist in the colony; for the authorities, these suspicions had been confirmed when M'ba was involved in the 1949 RDA congress in Abidjan
Abidjan
Abidjan is the economic and former official capital of Côte d'Ivoire, while the current capital is Yamoussoukro. it was the largest city in the nation and the third-largest French-speaking city in the world, after Paris, and Kinshasa but before Montreal...
.
In 1951, the CMG decided to break its ties with the Communists, siding with the moderate position favored by Houphouët-Boigny while he did the same. At the same time M'ba, while maintaining his "rebellious" image to the electorate, became close with the French administration. However, the administration was already supporting his main opponent, Congressman Jean-Hilaire Aubame
Jean-Hilaire Aubame
Jean-Hilaire Aubame was a Gabonese politician active during both the colonial and independence periods. The French journalist Pierre Péan said that Aubame's training "as a practicing Catholic and a customs official helped to make him an integrated man, one of whom political power was not an end in...
, who was M'ba's protégé
Mentorship
Mentorship refers to a personal developmental relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps a less experienced or less knowledgeable person....
and his half-brother's foster son
Fosterage
Fosterage, the practice of a family bringing up a child not their own, differs from adoption in that the child's parents, not the foster-parents, remain the acknowledged parents. In many modern western societies foster care can be organised by the state to care for children with troubled family...
. In the legislative elections of 17 June 1951, Aubame was easily re-elected, as M'ba only received 3,257 votes, just 11% of the electorate. In the territorial elections of March 1952, Aubame's l'Union démocratique et sociale gabonaise (UDSG; Gabonese Social and Democratic Union) won 14 of the 24 contested seats, against two for the CMG; however, the CMG received 57% of the votes cast in Libreville.
Rise to power
He left the CMG to join the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG) led by Paul Gondjout
Paul Gondjout
Paul Marie Indjendjet Gondjout was a Gabonese politician and civil servant, and the father of Laure Gondjout, another prominent Gabonese politician. Gondjout was a member of the Mpongwe ethnic group, and served in the French colonial administration from 1928, and founded the Cercle amical et...
in 1954, whom M'ba intended to overthrow. Gondjout, the secretary of the BDG, appointed M'ba secretary-general and formed a long term alliance against Aubame. In the legislative elections of 2 January 1956, M'ba received 36% of the votes versus 47% for Aubame. Though not elected, M'ba became the leader of the indigenous territory, and some of the UDSG began to ally themselves with him.
In the municipal elections of 1956, M'ba received support from the French logging industry, especially Roland Bru, and was elected mayor of Libreville
Libreville
Libreville is the capital and largest city of Gabon, in west central Africa. The city is a port on the Komo River, near the Gulf of Guinea, and a trade center for a timber region. As of 2005, it has a population of 578,156.- History :...
with 65.5% of the vote. On 23 November he was appointed the first mayor of the capital. This has been cited as the BDG's first significant victory over the UDSG. In the French practie of holding multiple posts known as cumul des positions, M'ba served as both mayor and deputy.
In the territorial elections of March 1957, his reputation as a "forester's man" worked against him; the BDG finished second again, winning 16 of the 40 contested seats, against 18 for the UDSG. Bru and other French foresters bribed several UDSG deputies to switch their political party to the BDG. M'ba's party won 21 seats against 19 for Aubame's party after a recount. However, in the absence of an absolute majority, both parties were obliged to submit on 21 May 1957, a list of individuals that both agreed were suitable for election into the government. That same day, M'ba was appointed vice president of the government council under the French governor. Soon, divisions grew within the government, and Aubame resigned from his position and filed a motion of censure
Censure
A censure is an expression of strong disapproval or harsh criticism. Among the forms that it can take are a stern rebuke by a legislature, a spiritual penalty imposed by a church, and a negative judgment pronounced on a theological proposition.-Politics:...
against the government. The motion was rejected by a 21–19 vote. With M'ba's victory, many elected UDSG members joined the parliamentary majority, giving the party a majority with 29 of the 40 legislative seats. Well installed in the government, he slowly began to reinforce his power.
After voting in favor of the Franco-African Community
French Community
The French Community was an association of states known in French simply as La Communauté. In 1958 it replaced the French Union, which had itself succeeded the French colonial empire in 1946....
, similar to the British Commonwealth, in the constitutional referendum
French constitutional referendum, 1958
A constitutional referendum was held in France on 28 September 1958. Voters were asked whether they approved of the adoption of a constitution for the French Fifth Republic written by Charles de Gaulle. It was overwhelmingly approved, with 82.6% in favour...
of 28 September 1958, Gabon became pseudo-politically independent. French journalist Pierre Péan
Pierre Péan
Pierre Péan is a renowned French investigative journalist and author of many books concerned with political scandals.-Books, investigations and controversies:...
asserted that M'ba secretly tried to prevent Gabonese independence; instead, he lobbied for it to become an overseas territory of France. In December 1958, the Assembly voted to establish the legislature, and then promulgated the constitution of the Republic of Gabon on 19 February 1959. On 27 February, M'ba was appointed Prime Minister. After M'ba openly declared for the departmentalization of Gabon in November 1959, Jacques Foccart
Jacques Foccart
Jacques Foccart was a chief adviser for the government of France on African policy as well as the co-founder of the Gaullist Service d'Action Civique in 1959 with Charles Pasqua, which specialized in covert operations in Africa.From 1960 to 1974, he was the President of France's chief of staff...
, Charles de Gaulle
Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969....
's spin-doctor for African policy, told him that this solution was unthinkable. M'ba then decided to adopt a new flag by affixing the design of the national tree, the Angouma
Aucoumea klaineana
Aucoumea klaineana is a tree in the family Burseraceae, native to equatorial west Africa in Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and Rio Muni. It is a medium-sized hardwood tree growing to 30-40 m tall, rarely larger, with a trunk 1-2.5 m diameter above the often large basal buttresses...
, over the French flag. Again, Foccart, as a loyal Frenchman, refused.
From July 1958, a third political force tried to establish itself in Gabon: the Parti d'Union Nationale Gabonais (PUNGA), led by René-Paul Sousatte and Jean-Jacques Boucavel, created attempting to unite the southern Gabonese against the established BDG and UDSG. It was also supported by former UDSG members, "radical" students, and trade unionists. Though it voted against the constitutional referendum, PUNGA organised several events geared toward gaining independence and the holding of more parliamentary elections, which were also supported by the UDSG. In March 1960, after independence had already been obtained, M'ba cracked down on PUNGA, claiming its goal had already been reached. He filed an arrest warrant
Arrest warrant
An arrest warrant is a warrant issued by and on behalf of the state, which authorizes the arrest and detention of an individual.-Canada:Arrest warrants are issued by a judge or justice of the peace under the Criminal Code of Canada....
for Sousatte for conspiring against him and searched the houses of UDSG members, who he accused of complicity. Intimidated, three deputies of the UDSG joined the majority.
Consolidation of power
On 19 June 1960, legislative elections were organised through the scrutin de liste voting systemVoting system
A voting system or electoral system is a method by which voters make a choice between options, often in an election or on a policy referendum....
, a form of bloc voting
Plurality-at-large voting
Plurality-at-large voting is a non-proportional voting system for electing several representatives from a single multimember electoral district using a series of check boxes and tallying votes similar to a plurality election...
in which each party offers a list of candidates who the population vote for; the list that obtains a majority of votes is declared the winner and obtains all the contested seats. Through the redistricting
Redistricting
Redistricting is the process of drawing United States electoral district boundaries, often in response to population changes determined by the results of the decennial census. In 36 states, the state legislature has primary responsibility for creating a redistricting plan, in many cases subject to...
of district and constituency boundaries, the BDG arbitrarily received 244 seats, while the UDSG received 77. In the month before full political independence of Gabon was achieved on 13 August, M'ba signed 15 cooperation agreements with France, pertaining to national defense, technical cooperation, economic support, access to materials, and national stability. On 17 August, independence was proclaimed. However, the Prime Minister realistically declared on 12 August, "We must not waste our chances by imagining that with independence, we now own a powerful fetish that will fulfill our wishes. In believing that with independence everything becomes easy and possible, there is a danger of descending into anarchy, disorder, poverty, famine."
M'ba aspired to establish a democratic regime, which, in his view, was necessary for the development and attraction of investments in Gabon. He attempted to reconcile the imperatives of democracy and the necessity for a strong and coherent government. Yet in practice, the regime showed a fundamental weakness in attaining M'ba's goal in which he, who had by this time become known as "the old man", or "the boss", would have a high degree of authority. A cult of personality
Cult of personality
A cult of personality arises when an individual uses mass media, propaganda, or other methods, to create an idealized and heroic public image, often through unquestioning flattery and praise. Cults of personality are usually associated with dictatorships...
developed steadily around M'ba; songs were sung in his praise and stamps and loincloths were printed with his effigy
Effigy
An effigy is a representation of a person, especially in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional form.The term is usually associated with full-length figures of a deceased person depicted in stone or wood on church monuments. These most often lie supine with hands together in prayer,...
. His photograph was displayed in stores and hotels across Gabon, in government buildings hung next to that of de Gaulle.
In November 1960, a crisis broke out within the majority party. After deciding to reshuffle the cabinet
Cabinet shuffle
In the parliamentary system a cabinet shuffle or reshuffle is an informal term for an event that occurs when a head of government rotates or changes the composition of ministers in their cabinet....
without consulting Parliament, the president of the National Assembly, Paul Gondjout, a previous ally of M'ba's, filed a motion of censure
Motion of no confidence
A motion of no confidence is a parliamentary motion whose passing would demonstrate to the head of state that the elected parliament no longer has confidence in the appointed government.-Overview:Typically, when a parliament passes a vote of no...
. Gondjout supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage, and specifically sought the establishment of a strong parliament and a prime minister with executive power
Executive (government)
Executive branch of Government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers.In many countries, the term...
. M'ba, who did not share these ideas, reacted repressively. On 16 November, under the pretext of a conspiracy, he declared a state of emergency
State of emergency
A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend some normal functions of the executive, legislative and judicial powers, alert citizens to change their normal behaviours, or order government agencies to implement emergency preparedness plans. It can also be used as a rationale...
, ordering the internment
Internment
Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the meaning as: "The action of 'interning'; confinement within the limits of a country or place." Most modern usage is about individuals, and there is a distinction...
of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after. Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961. Gondjout was sentenced to two years in prison. Sousatte, who also opposed the constitution, was also sentenced to the same amount of jail time. Upon their releases, M'ba appointed Gondjout president of the economic council and Sousatte Minister of Agriculture, both mostly symbolic posts.
"Hyperprésident" of Gabon
On 4 December, M'ba was elected to replace Gondjout as Secretary General of the BDG. He turned to the opposition to strengthen his position. With Aubame, he formed a number of sufficiently balanced political unions to appeal to the electorate. On 12 February, they won 99.75% of the vote. The same day, M'ba was elected President of Gabon, being the only candidate. In thanks for his help, M'ba appointed Aubame as foreign ministerForeign minister
A Minister of Foreign Affairs, or foreign minister, is a cabinet minister who helps form the foreign policy of a sovereign state. The foreign minister is often regarded as the most senior ministerial position below that of the head of government . It is often granted to the deputy prime minister in...
to replace André Gustave Anguilé
André Gustave Anguilé
André Gustave Anguilé is a former Gabonese politician and diplomat. He was the foreign minister of his country from 1960–1961.-References:...
.
On 21 February 1961, a new constitution was unanimously adopted, providing for a "hyperpresidential" regime. M'ba now had full executive powers: he could appoint ministers whose functions and responsibilities were decided by him; he could dissolve the National Assembly by choice or prolong its term beyond the normal five years; he could declare a state of emergency
State of emergency
A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend some normal functions of the executive, legislative and judicial powers, alert citizens to change their normal behaviours, or order government agencies to implement emergency preparedness plans. It can also be used as a rationale...
when he believed the need arose, though for this amendment he would have to consult the people via a referendum. This was, in fact, very similar to the constitution adopted in favor of Fulbert Youlou
Fulbert Youlou
Abbé Fulbert Youlou was a Brazzaville-Congolese Roman Catholic priest, nationalist leader and politician.-Early life:...
at roughly the same time. A report from the French secret service summarized the situation as follows:
The new constitution and the National Union (a political union they founded) suspended the quarrels between M'ba and Aubame from 1961 to 1963. Despite this, political unrest grew within the population, and many students held demonstrations on the frequent dissolutions of the National Assembly and the general political attitude in the country. The president did not hesitate to enforce the law himself; with a chicotte
Sjambok
The sjambok or litupa is the official heavy leather whip of South Africa, sometimes seen as synonymous with apartheid but actually much older and still used outside the official judiciary....
, he whipped citizens who did not show respect for him, including passersby who "forgot" to salute him. In addition, in February 1961, he decreed the internment of approximately 20 people for these demonstrations.
On 9 February 1963, the President pardon
Pardon
Clemency means the forgiveness of a crime or the cancellation of the penalty associated with it. It is a general concept that encompasses several related procedures: pardoning, commutation, remission and reprieves...
ed those arrested during the political crisis of November 1960. On 19 February, he broke his ties with Aubame; all UDSG representatives were dismissed, with the exception of M'ba supporter Francis Meye. In an attempt to oust Aubame from his legislative seat, M'ba appointed him President of the Supreme Court on 25 February. Thereafter, M'ba claimed that Aubame had resigned from the National Assembly, citing incompatibility with parliamentary functions. Aubame resolved the problem by resigning from his post on the Supreme Court, complicating matters for M'ba. Faced with reports of tension between the government and the National Assembly, even though 70% of it were BDG members, the Gabonese president dissolved the legislature on 21 January 1964 as an "economy measure".
The electoral conditions were announced as such: The election 67 districts were reduced to 47. M'ba disqualified Aubame by announcing anyone who held a post recently was banned. Any party would have to submit 47 candidates who had to pay US$160 or none at all. Thus, over US$7,500 would be deposited without considering campaign expenses. M'ba's idea was that no party other than his would have the money to enter candidates. In response to this, the opposition announced its refusal to participate in elections that they did not consider fair.
1964 Gabon coup d'état
Louis Bigmann
-Early life and political career:A member of the Mpongwe people, he was born and lived in Baraka. Bigmann attended the Ecole Montfort in Libreville, Gabon's capital...
, French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer, On Radio Libreville, the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
had taken place, and that they required technical assistance and told the French not interfere in this matter. M'ba was instructed to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat. "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits", he said. "It came to a boil."
During these events, no gunshots were fired. The people did not react strongly, which according to the military, was a sign of approval. A provisional government was formed, and the presidency was offered to Aubame. The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Paul Gondjout. The plotters were content to ensure security for civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene in the coup; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.
Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Ndjolé
Ndjolé
Ndjolé is a town in Gabon, lying north east of Lambaréné on the River Ogooué, the N2 road and the Trans-Gabon Railway. It is known as a base for logging and as a transport hub. Ndjolé is the last city that can be reached by barge traffic traveling up the Ogooué River. Above Ndjolé there are...
, Aubame's electoral stronghold. However, due to heavy rain, the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village. The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné
Lambaréné
Lambaréné is the capital of the political district Moyen-Ogooué in Gabon. The city counts 24,000 inhabitants and is located 75 kilometres south of the equator....
. Several hours later, they returned to Libreville. The new head of government quickly contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals was protected and to ask him to prevent any French military intervention.
But in Paris, de Gaulle decided otherwise. M'ba was one of the most loyal allies to France in Africa. While visiting France in 1961, M'ba said: "All Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon." Moreover, under his regime, Europeans enjoyed particularly friendly treatment. The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government. Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon. Since M'ba was otherwise occupied, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, Paul Marie Yembit, who had not been arrested. However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter that Yembit would later sign, confirming their intervention. Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in Dakar
Dakar
Dakar is the capital city and largest city of Senegal. It is located on the Cap-Vert Peninsula on the Atlantic coast and is the westernmost city on the African mainland...
and Brazzaville
Brazzaville
-Transport:The city is home to Maya-Maya Airport and a railway station on the Congo-Ocean Railway. It is also an important river port, with ferries sailing to Kinshasa and to Bangui via Impfondo...
landed in Libreville and restored M'ba back into power. Over the course of the operation, one French soldier was killed, while 15 to 25 died on the Gabonese side.
Under the tutelage of France
After being reinstated into power, M'ba refused to consider that the coup was directed against him and his regime. He believed that it was a conspiracy against the state. Soon, however, anti-government demonstrations began to take place, with slogans such as "Léon M'ba, président des Français!" ("Léon M'ba, president of the French") or ones that called for the end of the "dictatorship". They showed solidarity after Aubame was charged on 23 March for his alleged involvement in the coup d'état. Despite the fact that he did not participate in the planning of the coup, Aubame was sentenced at his trial to 10 years of hard laborHard Labor
Hard Labor is the eleventh album by American rock band Three Dog Night, released in 1974 .- Cover Artwork :The original album cover, depicting of the birth of a record album , was deemed too controversial and was soon reworked with a huge bandage covering the "birth". The cover also includes an...
and 10 years of exile.
Despite these events, legislative elections, which were planned before the coup, were held in April 1964. The major opposition parties were deprived of their leaders, who were prevented from participating in the elections due to their involvement in the coup. The UDSG disappeared from the political scene, and the opposition consisted of parties that lacked national focus and maintained only regional or pro-democracy platforms. The opposition still won 46% of the votes and 16 of 47 seats, while the BDG received 54% of the vote and 31 seats in the assembly.
His French friends constantly surrounded him, protecting or providing him with counsel. A presidential guard was created by Bob Maloubier, a former French secret agent
Secret Agent
Secret Agent is a British film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, loosely based on two stories in Ashenden: Or the British Agent by W. Somerset Maugham. The film starred John Gielgud, Peter Lorre, Madeleine Carroll, and Robert Young...
, and co-financed by French oil groups. The oil groups, active in the country since 1957, had strengthened their interests in 1962 after the discovery of offshore oil deposits. Gabon quickly became a major oil supplier for France. They carried such influence in Gabon that following the February 1964 coup, the decision to seek military intervention was taken by the CEO
Chief executive officer
A chief executive officer , managing director , Executive Director for non-profit organizations, or chief executive is the highest-ranking corporate officer or administrator in charge of total management of an organization...
of Union Générale des Pétroles (UGP; now known as Elf Aquitaine
Elf Aquitaine
Elf Aquitaine was a French oil company which merged with TotalFina to form TotalFinaElf. The new company changed its name to Total in 2003...
), Pierre Guillaumat
Pierre Guillaumat
Pierre Guillaumat was a Minister of National Education and Minister of the Armies under French President Charles De Gaulle and founder of the Elf Aquitaine oil company in 1967. He was the son of French general Adolphe Guillaumat....
, Foccart, and other French businessmen and leaders. Later on, another UGP executive, Guy Ponsaillé, was appointed as political adviser to the president and became M'ba's representative in discussions with French companies. However, the Gabonese president was afraid of internal strife or assassaination, so he remained secluded inside his heavily defended presidential palace. Ponsaillé helped M'ba obtain support from political moderates
Moderate
In politics and religion, a moderate is an individual who is not extreme, partisan or radical. In recent years, political moderates has gained traction as a buzzword....
and accompanied him in his visits around the country in order to restore his reputation among the Gabonese people.
French ambassador Cousseran and American ambassador Charles F. Darlington, suspected of sympathizing with Aubame, left shortly after the coup. The new French ambassador François Simon de Quirielle, a "traditional diplomat", was determined not to interfere in the internal affairs of Gabon. After a few months of misunderstandings with de Quirielle, M'ba contacted Foccart to tell him that he could no longer work with the Ambassador. Foccart recounted the events in his memoirs, Foccart Speaks:
As a result of this incident, Foccart appointed a "colonialist", Maurice Delauney, as the new French Ambassador to Gabon.
Succession and legacy
Élysée Palace
The Élysée Palace is the official residence of the President of the French Republic, containing his office, and is where the Council of Ministers meets. It is located near the Champs-Élysées in Paris....
. Confirmed as M'ba's successor, Bongo was appointed on 24 September 1965 as Presidential Representative and placed in charge of defence and coordination.
In August 1966, M'ba was admitted to the Hôpital Charles Bernard, a hospital in Paris. Despite his inability to govern, the president clung to his power. Only after a long insistence by Foccart did M'ba agree to appoint Bongo as Vice President in replacement of Yembit, announcing his decision through a radio and television message recorded in his room on 14 November 1966. A constitutional reform in February 1967 legitimized Bongo as M'ba's successor. The preparations for the succession were finalized by the early legislative and presidential elections held on 19 March 1967. Since no one dared to stand on the opposition ticket, M'ba was reelected with 99.9% of the vote, while the BDG won all seats in the Assembly.
On 27 November 1967, just days after he took his presidential oath at the Gabonese embassy, M'ba died from cancer
Cancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
in Paris, where he had been hospitalized since August of that year. He is survived by his wife, Pauline M'ba, and 11 children. The day after M'ba's death, Bongo constitutionally succeeded him as President of Gabon. Gabon's main airport, the Leon M'ba International Airport
Libreville International Airport
Libreville Leon M'ba International Airport is an airportsituated in Libreville, Gabon. It is the main international airport in the country.Named after the first president of Gabon, Léon M'ba, it was the hub of former national airline Air Gabon until March 2006.-Airlines and destinations:-Cargo...
, was later named for him.
Forty years after his death, the Léon M'ba Memorial was built in Libreville to honor his memory. President Bongo laid the cornerstone for the Memorial on 9 February 2007, and it was inaugurated by Bongo on 27 November 2007. In February 2008, it was opened to the public. In addition to serving as a mausoleum
Mausoleum
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the...
for M'ba, the Memorial is a cultural center.