Salammbô (novel)
Encyclopedia
Salammbô is a historical novel
by Gustave Flaubert
. It is set in Carthage
during the third century BCE
, immediately before and during the Mercenary Revolt which took place shortly after the First Punic War
. Flaubert's main source was Book I of Polybius
's Histories. It was not a particularly well-studied period of history and required a great deal of work from the author, who enthusiastically left behind the realism
of his masterpiece Madame Bovary
for this tale of blood-and-thunder.
The book, which Flaubert researched painstakingly, is largely an exercise in sensuous and violent exoticism. Following the success of Madame Bovary
, it was another best-seller and sealed his reputation. The Carthaginian costumes described in it even left traces on the fashions of the time. Nevertheless, in spite of its classic status in France, it is not widely known today among English speakers.
, Carthage is unable to fulfil promises made to its army of mercenaries, and finds itself under attack. The fictional title character, a priestess and the daughter of Hamilcar Barca
, an aristocratic Carthaginian general, is the object of the obsessive lust of Matho, a leader of the mercenaries. With the help of the scheming freed slave, Spendius, Matho steals the sacred veil of Carthage, the Zaïmph, prompting Salammbô to enter the mercenaries' camp in an attempt to steal it back. The Zaïmph is an ornate bejewelled veil draped about the statue of the goddess Tanit
in the sanctum sanctorum of her temple: the veil is the city's guardian and touching it will bring death to the perpetrator.
Many readers will remember the chilling passages of chapter 13 ("Moloch") that describe the burning of the children inside the huge, hollow brass statue of the Baal
Moloch
: "The brazen arms were working more quickly. They paused no longer. Every time that a child was placed in them the priests of Moloch spread out their hands upon him to burden him with the crimes of the people, vociferating: "They are not men but oxen!" and the multitude round about repeated: "Oxen! oxen!" The devout exclaimed: "Lord! Eat!".
There is also a dramatic account of the boy Hannibal only narrowly avoiding being sacrificed.
Flaubert departs from Polybius's account in many particulars. In reality Hanno
was not crucified by the mercenaries; there was a Carthaginian general captured and crucified, but his name was Hannibal
, and he felt this would have confused his readers.
Historical novel
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, a historical novel is-Development:An early example of historical prose fiction is Luó Guànzhōng's 14th century Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which covers one of the most important periods of Chinese history and left a lasting impact on Chinese culture.The...
by Gustave Flaubert
Gustave Flaubert
Gustave Flaubert was a French writer who is counted among the greatest Western novelists. He is known especially for his first published novel, Madame Bovary , and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style.-Early life and education:Flaubert was born on December 12, 1821, in Rouen,...
. It is set in Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
during the third century BCE
3rd century BC
The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period.-Overview:...
, immediately before and during the Mercenary Revolt which took place shortly after the First Punic War
First Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
. Flaubert's main source was Book I of Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
's Histories. It was not a particularly well-studied period of history and required a great deal of work from the author, who enthusiastically left behind the realism
Literary realism
Literary realism most often refers to the trend, beginning with certain works of nineteenth-century French literature and extending to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors in various countries, towards depictions of contemporary life and society "as they were." In the spirit of...
of his masterpiece Madame Bovary
Madame Bovary
Madame Bovary is Gustave Flaubert's first published novel and is considered his masterpiece. The story focuses on a doctor's wife, Emma Bovary, who has adulterous affairs and lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life...
for this tale of blood-and-thunder.
The book, which Flaubert researched painstakingly, is largely an exercise in sensuous and violent exoticism. Following the success of Madame Bovary
Madame Bovary
Madame Bovary is Gustave Flaubert's first published novel and is considered his masterpiece. The story focuses on a doctor's wife, Emma Bovary, who has adulterous affairs and lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life...
, it was another best-seller and sealed his reputation. The Carthaginian costumes described in it even left traces on the fashions of the time. Nevertheless, in spite of its classic status in France, it is not widely known today among English speakers.
Plot
After the First Punic WarFirst Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
, Carthage is unable to fulfil promises made to its army of mercenaries, and finds itself under attack. The fictional title character, a priestess and the daughter of Hamilcar Barca
Hamilcar Barca
Hamilcar Barca or Barcas was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair....
, an aristocratic Carthaginian general, is the object of the obsessive lust of Matho, a leader of the mercenaries. With the help of the scheming freed slave, Spendius, Matho steals the sacred veil of Carthage, the Zaïmph, prompting Salammbô to enter the mercenaries' camp in an attempt to steal it back. The Zaïmph is an ornate bejewelled veil draped about the statue of the goddess Tanit
Tanit
Tanit was a Phoenician lunar goddess, worshipped as the patron goddess at Carthage. Tanit was worshiped in Punic contexts in the Western Mediterranean, from Malta to Gades into Hellenistic times. From the fifth century BCE onwards Tanit is associated with that of Baal Hammon...
in the sanctum sanctorum of her temple: the veil is the city's guardian and touching it will bring death to the perpetrator.
- Chapter 1. The Feast. During a victory banquet, the mercenaries destroy Hamilcar's garden for sport in his absence. Hamilcar's daughter Salammbô tries to quell the riot. Matho falls in love with her. The slave Spendius is released, and he tries to persuade Matho to take Carthage for the mercenaries.
- Chapter 2. At Sicca. The mercenaries leave the city unpaid and travel to Sicca. Later, Hanno comes and speaks to the mercenaries about delays in recompensing them, but he is driven off when Zarxas arrives and tells them of a treacherous massacre of 300 slingers who had stayed behind.
- Chapter 3. Salammbô. Hamilcar's daughter prays and is instructed by Schahabarim.
- Chapter 4. Beneath the Walls of Carthage. The mercenaries besiege Carthage; Matho and Spendius penetrate via the aqueduct.
- Chapter 5. Tanit. Matho and Spendius steal the Zaïmph. Because Matho is caught while breaking into Salammbô's bedroom to see her again, she falls under suspicion of complicity.
- Chapter 6. Hanno. The mercenaries leave Carthage and split into two groups, attacking Utica and Hippo-Zarytus. Hanno surprises Spendius at Utica, and occupies the city, but flees when Matho arrives and routs his troops.
- Chapter 7. Hamilcar Barca. The hero returns and an attempt is made to blame him for Hanno's losses. He defends himself before the Council and defends the mercenaries, but turns against the barbarians when he sees the damage they have done to his property.
- Chapter 8. The Battle of the Macar. Hamilcar defeats Spendius at the bridge of the Macar, three miles from Utica.
- Chapter 9. In the Field. Hamilcar's troops are trapped by the mercenaries.
- Chapter 10. The Serpent. Schahabarim sends Salammbô in disguise to retrieve the Zaïmph.
- Chapter 11. In the Tent. Salammbô reaches Matho in his tent at the encampment. Believing each other to be divine apparitions, they make love. The mercenaries are attacked and dispersed by Hamilcar's troops. She takes away the Zaïmph, and on meeting her father, Hamilcar has her betrothed to Narr' Havas, a mercenary who has changed sides.
- Chapter 12. The Aqueduct. The Carthaginians return to their city with the mercenaries in pursuit. Spendius cuts off the water supply to Carthage.
- Chapter 13. Moloch. Carthaginian children are sacrificed to Moloch. Hamilcar disguises a slave-child as his son Hannibal and sends him to die in his son's place.
- Chapter 14. The Defile of the Axe. The drought is broken and aid comes. Hamilcar drives the mercenaries away from their encampments. Later, thousands of mercenaries are trapped in a defileDefile (geography)Defile is a geographic term for a narrow pass or gorge between mountains or hills. It has its origins as a military description of a pass through which troops can march only in a narrow column or with a narrow front...
and slowly starve (the Battle of "The Saw"). Deaths of Hanno and Spendius, both by crucifixion. - Chapter 15. Matho. Victory celebrations at Carthage. Matho is tortured before his execution; Salammbô, witnessing this, dies of shock. The Zaïmph has brought death upon those who touched it.
Characters
The transliterations follow J. W. Matthews's English version.- Abdalonim, the overseer of Hamilcar's stewards
- AutharitusAutaritusAutaritus was the leader of the Gallic mercenaries in the Carthaginian army in Africa during the First Punic War. He took an active part in the Mercenary War against Carthage at the end of the First Punic War, but at length fell into the power of Hamilcar Barca, and was crucified.-Footnotes:...
(Autharite), a leader of the Mercenaries - Demonades, a servant of Hanno
- Giddenem, the governor of Hamilcar's slaves
- Gisco (Gesco)Hasdrubal GiscoHasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia and North Africa during the Second Punic War. He should not be confused with Hasdrubal Barca, the brother of Hannibal....
, a Carthaginian general - Hamilcar Barca (Amilcar)Hamilcar BarcaHamilcar Barca or Barcas was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair....
, Carthaginian general who led the mercenaries before the events of the book - Hannibal, Hamilcar's young son
- Hanno (Hannon), a Carthaginian general (based on Hanno the GreatHanno the GreatThere were three leaders of ancient Carthage who were known as Hanno the Great, according to two historians . These figures they call for convenience: Hanno I the Great, Hanno II the Great, and Hanno III the Great...
and Hannibal of the Mercenary WarHannibal (Mercenary War)Hannibal was a Carthaginian general who took part in the Mercenary War between Carthage and rebel mercenaries.During this war, he replaced Hanno II the Great as a commander of the Carthaginian army...
) - Iddibal, a servant of Hamilcar
- Matho (Mâthos), a leader of the Mercenaries
- Narr' Havas (Flaubert's spelling of Naravas), prince of the Numidians, and a leader of the Mercenaries
- Salammbô, daughter of Hamilcar
- Schahabarim, high priest of Tanith, and teacher of Salammbô
- Spendius, a slave of Hamilcar, captured at the battle of Argunisae, who becomes a leader of the Mercenaries during the Revolt
- Taanach, a slave attending Salammbô
- Zarxas (Zarzas), a leader of the Mercenaries
Quotations
The opening words became at once almost proverbial: C'était à Mégara, faubourg de Carthage, dans les jardins d'Hamilcar... "It was at Megara, a suburb of Carthage, in the gardens of Hamilcar, that the soldiers whom he had commanded in Sicily were holding a great feast to celebrate the anniversary of the Battle of Eryx. The master was absent, their numbers were large, and accordingly they ate and drank in perfect freedom."Many readers will remember the chilling passages of chapter 13 ("Moloch") that describe the burning of the children inside the huge, hollow brass statue of the Baal
Baal
Baʿal is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" that is used for various gods who were patrons of cities in the Levant and Asia Minor, cognate to Akkadian Bēlu...
Moloch
Moloch
Moloch — also rendered as Molech, Molekh, Molok, Molek, Molock, or Moloc — is the name of an ancient Semitic god...
: "The brazen arms were working more quickly. They paused no longer. Every time that a child was placed in them the priests of Moloch spread out their hands upon him to burden him with the crimes of the people, vociferating: "They are not men but oxen!" and the multitude round about repeated: "Oxen! oxen!" The devout exclaimed: "Lord! Eat!".
There is also a dramatic account of the boy Hannibal only narrowly avoiding being sacrificed.
Flaubert departs from Polybius's account in many particulars. In reality Hanno
Hanno
Hanno may refer to:* Hanno, Saitama, Honshū, Japan* Hanno , a lunar crater* Hanno , the pet white elephant of Pope Leo XPeople named Hanno:*Several ancient Carthaginians, including:...
was not crucified by the mercenaries; there was a Carthaginian general captured and crucified, but his name was Hannibal
Hannibal (Mercenary War)
Hannibal was a Carthaginian general who took part in the Mercenary War between Carthage and rebel mercenaries.During this war, he replaced Hanno II the Great as a commander of the Carthaginian army...
, and he felt this would have confused his readers.
Musical
- SalammbôSalammbô (Mussorgsky)Salammbô [alternative title: The Libyan ] is an unfinished opera in 4 acts by Modest Mussorgsky. The fragmentary Russian language libretto was written by the composer, and is based on the novel Salammbô by Gustave Flaubert , but includes verses taken from poems by Vasily Zhukovsky, Apollon Maykov,...
, an unfinished opera by Modest MussorgskyModest MussorgskyModest Petrovich Mussorgsky was a Russian composer, one of the group known as 'The Five'. He was an innovator of Russian music in the romantic period...
(1863–66) - SalammbôSalammbô (Rachmaninoff)Salammbô was a projected opera conceived by Russian composer Sergei Rachmaninoff around 1906. It was to be based on Salammbô, a historical novel by Gustave Flaubert...
, another unfinished opera by Sergei RachmaninoffSergei RachmaninoffSergei Vasilievich Rachmaninoff was a Russian composer, pianist, and conductor. Rachmaninoff is widely considered one of the finest pianists of his day and, as a composer, one of the last great representatives of Romanticism in Russian classical music... - Salammbô, an opera composed by Ernest ReyerErnest ReyerErnest Reyer, the adopted name of Louis Étienne Ernest Rey, was a French opera composer and music critic .- Biography :...
based on Flaubert's novel (1890). - Salammbo, an opera composed by Josef Matthias HauerJosef Matthias HauerJosef Mattias Hauer was an Austrian composer and music theorist. He is most famous for developing, independent of and a year or two before Arnold Schoenberg, a method for composing with all 12 notes of the chromatic scale.Hauer "detested all art that expressed ideas, programmes or feelings,"...
based on Flaubert's novel (1929). - Salammbo is the title of the fictional opera that Charles Foster Kane promotes for his second wife in Orson WellesOrson WellesGeorge Orson Welles , best known as Orson Welles, was an American film director, actor, theatre director, screenwriter, and producer, who worked extensively in film, theatre, television and radio...
' Citizen KaneCitizen KaneCitizen Kane is a 1941 American drama film, directed by and starring Orson Welles. Many critics consider it the greatest American film of all time, especially for its innovative cinematography, music and narrative structure. Citizen Kane was Welles' first feature film...
. The segment featured in the film, Salammbo's Aria, was composed by Bernard HerrmannBernard HerrmannBernard Herrmann was an American composer noted for his work in motion pictures.An Academy Award-winner , Herrmann is particularly known for his collaborations with director Alfred Hitchcock, most famously Psycho, North by Northwest, The Man Who Knew Too Much, and Vertigo...
. - Salammbô, an opera by the French composer Philippe Fénélon, on a libretto by Jean-Yves Masson after Flaubert (1998)
Film
- Salammbô, a silent film by Pierre Marodon, with music by Florent SchmittFlorent SchmittFlorent Schmitt was a French composer.-Early life:A Lorrainer, born in Meurthe-et-Moselle, Schmitt originally took music lessons in Nancy with the local composer Gustave Sandré. Subsequently he entered the Paris Conservatoire. There he studied with Gabriel Fauré, Jules Massenet, Théodore Dubois,...
- Salammbô, a sword and sandalSword and sandalThe Peplum , also known as Sword-and-Sandal, is a genre of largely Italian-made Historical or Biblical Epics that dominated the Italian film industry from 1957 to 1965, eventually being replaced in 1965 by the "Spaghetti Western"...
film by Sergio GriecoSergio GriecoSergio Grieco was an Italian film director and screenwriter.He directed nearly 40 films between 1950 and 1977...
(1962) - Salammbo was also very freely adapted for the ItalianItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
silent movieSilent MovieSilent Movie is a 1976 satirical comedy film co-written, directed by, and starring Mel Brooks, and released by 20th Century Fox on June 17, 1976...
classic CabiriaCabiriaCabiria is a silent movie from the early years of Italy's movie industry, directed by Giovanni Pastrone . The movie is set in ancient Sicily, Carthage, and Cirta during the period of the Second Punic War . It follows a melodramatic main plot about an abducted little girl, Cabiria, and features...
in 1914, which was the first of many films to star the recurring character MacisteMacisteMaciste is one of the oldest recurring characters in cinema. He cuts a heroic figure throughout the history of the cinema of Italy from the 1910s to the 1970s, even if most of the movies that featured him are considered to be of poor artistic quality...
. - Salammbô was the opera used in the film Citizen KaneCitizen KaneCitizen Kane is a 1941 American drama film, directed by and starring Orson Welles. Many critics consider it the greatest American film of all time, especially for its innovative cinematography, music and narrative structure. Citizen Kane was Welles' first feature film...
, in which the ill-fated Susan Kane premiered; her performance was panned by the critics.
Other
- Salammbo, a play by Charles LudlamCharles LudlamCharles Braun Ludlam was an American actor, director, and playwright.-Early life:Ludlam was born in Floral Park, New York, the son of Marjorie and Joseph William Ludlam. He was raised in Greenlawn, New York, on Long Island, and attended Harborfields High School. The fact that he was gay was not a...
(1988) - Salammbô, a series of science fiction graphic novels by Phillippe Druillet
- Salammbo: Battle for CarthageSalammbo: Battle for CarthageSalammbo: Battle for Carthage is a first person perspective Science Fiction Fantasy video game released in 2003. The game was developed Cryo Interactive Entertainment....
is the title of a Windows game by Dreamcatcher Interactive with artwork by Druillet. Its story is based on both Gustave Flaubert's and Phillipe Druillet's works (2003)