Samuel C. Phillips
Encyclopedia
General
Samuel Cochran Phillips (February 19, 1921–January 31, 1990) was a United States Air Force
four star general who served as Director of NASA
's Apollo Manned Lunar Landing Program from 1964 to 1969, the seventh Director of the National Security Agency
from 1972 to 1973, and as Commander, Air Force Systems Command
(COMAFSC) from 1973 to 1975.
in 1921. He graduated from public schools in Cheyenne, Wyoming
, earned a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from the University of Wyoming
in 1942, and a master's degree in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan
in 1950.
During World War II, Phillips served as a combat pilot with the 364th Fighter Group
of the Eighth Air Force
, based in England
. He completed two combat tours of duty in the European Theater of Operations
. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross
with oak leaf clusters, Air Medal
with seven oak leaf clusters, and the French Croix de Guerre
. After the war, he was assigned to the European Theater headquarters in Frankfurt, Germany. Then, in July 1947, Phillips was transferred to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.
Phillips's research and development assignments included six years with the Engineering Division at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
, Ohio; duty as an electronics officer with the nuclear weapon
s experiments at Eniwetok Atoll during Operation Greenhouse
; and in Project Officer assignments with the B-52 Stratofortress
heavy bomber, the AIM-4 Falcon
air-to-air missile
, and the Bomarc surface-to-air missile
programs.
Phillips returned to England in 1956, where he served with the 7th Air Division of the Strategic Air Command
. His participation in negotiating and completing the international agreement with the United Kingdom
for the deployment and use of the American Thor
nuclear-armed intermediate-range ballistic missile
(IRBM). This latter assignment earned Phillips the Legion of Merit
medal.
Phillips returned to the United States in 1959, and he was assigned to the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division of the Air Research and Development Command, in Los Angeles, California
, as the Director of the Minuteman
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
Program (ICBM).
.
Phillips aggressively took on the job with constant daily meetings, phone contact and visits to contractor sites which kept him on the road 75 per cent of the time. He described the job to New York Times reporter John Noble Wilford
this way:
In November 1965, Phillips took a team to North American Aviation
in Downey, California, prime contractor for the Command/Service Module
and also the Saturn V
launch vehicle's S-II
second stage, to investigate problems of delays, quality shortfalls and cost overruns. On December 19, he wrote a memo to NAA president Lee Atwood
with a copy of a report of his findings and some recommended fixes, which he also sent to Mueller. Mueller also sent Atwood a follow-on letter strongly expressing his disappointment with the CSM and S-II problems, requiring a response by the end of January 1966 and a follow-on visit of Phillip's team in March.
When the Apollo 1
fire killed three astronauts in a ground test on January 27, 1967, just before what was to have been the first manned Apollo mission, a Congressional investigation uncovered the existence of what came to be known as "the Phillips report". NASA Administrator James E. Webb
was called before Congress and testified he was unaware of the existence of this report, which ignited some Congressmen's and Senators' criticism of NASA and the selection of North American as the contractor. However, with the political support of President Lyndon B. Johnson
, this controversy blew over and over the next eighteen months, Apollo got back on track toward manned missions and the goal of a first lunar landing before 1970.
At a small dinner party before the launch of Apollo 10
in May 1969, Dr. Wernher von Braun
, director of the Marshall Space Flight Center
in Huntsville, Ala., praised General Phillips as the one most responsible for pulling the many pieces of the Apollo program together and making them work, on time.
During the Apollo 11
mission in July 1969 which achieved the program's manned landing goal, Phillips announced his intention to leave NASA and return to Air Force duty. During his NASA service, he had been promoted to Lieutenant general
.
in Los Angeles.
In August 1972, Phillips was apponted as the Director of the National Security Agency
(N.S.A.) and also as the Chief of the Central Security Service
. After two years in those positions, Phillips was assigned as the Commander of the Air Force Systems Command, in August 1973, at Andrews Air Force Base
, Maryland.
He retired from the Air Force in 1975.
in September 1969 for his service with NASA, and once again in July 1972 for his service as the Commander of SAMSO. Phillips also was awarded two NASA Distinguished Service Medal
s by that agency, in 1968, and in 1969, for his distinguished contributions to the Apollo Program.
Phillips held an honorary doctor of laws degree from the University of Wyoming. He was also a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(I.E.E.E.), and as a member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
. He was selected for a fellowship by that organization in October 1969 for "notable and valuable contributions to sciences and technology." In addition, Phillips was a fellow of the American Astronautical Society
; an honorary member of the national business fraternity, Alpha Kappa Psi
; a member of the Board of Governors of the "National Space Club"; a member of the Board of Directors of the United Services Automobile Association, and the president of the Military Benefit Association
.
On September 26, 1971, Gen. Phillips was awarded the Smithsonian Institution's Langley Medal in aviation and space exploration
for his contributions to the Apollo Project from 1964 to 1969. He was the 14th recipient of the Langley Medal since the award was first presented to the Wright Brothers
in 1909. In April 1971, Gen. Phillips was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering
for his leadership and his direction of the Minuteman missile Program and of the Apollo Program. Phillips received the General Thomas D. White U.S. Air Force Space Trophy on September 11, 1972, and also the Flying Tiger Pilot Trophy (awarded by the American Volunteer Group
) on July 7, 1973.
General (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, general is a four-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force; the Marine Corps does not have an...
Samuel Cochran Phillips (February 19, 1921–January 31, 1990) was a United States Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
four star general who served as Director of NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
's Apollo Manned Lunar Landing Program from 1964 to 1969, the seventh Director of the National Security Agency
National Security Agency
The National Security Agency/Central Security Service is a cryptologic intelligence agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the collection and analysis of foreign communications and foreign signals intelligence, as well as protecting U.S...
from 1972 to 1973, and as Commander, Air Force Systems Command
Air Force Systems Command
Air Force Systems Command is a former United States Air Force command. Its headquarters was located at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland...
(COMAFSC) from 1973 to 1975.
Early years and education
Phillips was born in Springerville, ArizonaSpringerville, Arizona
Springerville is a town in Apache County, Arizona, United States within the White Mountains. Its postal ZIP code is 85938. According to 2006 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the town is 1,956.Springerville sits at an elevation of 6,974 feet...
in 1921. He graduated from public schools in Cheyenne, Wyoming
Cheyenne, Wyoming
Cheyenne is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Wyoming and the county seat of Laramie County. It is the principal city of the Cheyenne, Wyoming, Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Laramie County. The population is 59,466 at the 2010 census. Cheyenne is the...
, earned a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering from the University of Wyoming
University of Wyoming
The University of Wyoming is a land-grant university located in Laramie, Wyoming, situated on Wyoming's high Laramie Plains, at an elevation of 7,200 feet , between the Laramie and Snowy Range mountains. It is known as UW to people close to the university...
in 1942, and a master's degree in electrical engineering from the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
in 1950.
Military service
He was commissioned a second lieutenant, Infantry, after completion of Reserve Officers Training Corps and graduation from the University of Wyoming. He then entered active military service, transferred to the Army Air Corps, attended flying school and earned his pilot wings.During World War II, Phillips served as a combat pilot with the 364th Fighter Group
364th Fighter Group
The 364th Fighter Group is an inactive United States Army Air Force organization. Its last assignment was with the Army Service Forces, being stationed at Camp Kilmer, New Jersey. It was inactivated on 10 November 1945....
of the Eighth Air Force
Eighth Air Force
The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command . It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana....
, based in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
. He completed two combat tours of duty in the European Theater of Operations
European Theater of Operations
The European Theater of Operations, United States Army was a United States Army formation which directed U.S. Army operations in parts of Europe from 1942 to 1945. It referred to Army Ground Forces, United States Army Air Forces, and Army Service Forces operations north of Italy and the...
. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross
Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
The Distinguished Flying Cross is a medal awarded to any officer or enlisted member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself or herself in support of operations by "heroism or extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight, subsequent to November 11, 1918." The...
with oak leaf clusters, Air Medal
Air Medal
The Air Medal is a military decoration of the United States. The award was created in 1942, and is awarded for meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight.-Criteria:...
with seven oak leaf clusters, and the French Croix de Guerre
Croix de guerre
The Croix de guerre is a military decoration of France. It was first created in 1915 and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins. The decoration was awarded during World War I, again in World War II, and in other conflicts...
. After the war, he was assigned to the European Theater headquarters in Frankfurt, Germany. Then, in July 1947, Phillips was transferred to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.
Phillips's research and development assignments included six years with the Engineering Division at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base in Greene and Montgomery counties in the state of Ohio. It includes both Wright and Patterson Fields, which were originally Wilbur Wright Field and Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot. Patterson Field is located approximately...
, Ohio; duty as an electronics officer with the nuclear weapon
Nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first fission bomb test released the same amount...
s experiments at Eniwetok Atoll during Operation Greenhouse
Operation Greenhouse
Operation Greenhouse was the fifth American nuclear test series, the second conducted in 1951 and the first to test principles that would lead to developing thermonuclear weapons . Conducted at the new Pacific Proving Ground, all of the devices were mounted in large steel towers, to simulate air...
; and in Project Officer assignments with the B-52 Stratofortress
B-52 Stratofortress
The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is a long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber operated by the United States Air Force since the 1950s. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, who have continued to provide maintainence and upgrades to the aircraft in service...
heavy bomber, the AIM-4 Falcon
AIM-4 Falcon
The Hughes AIM-4 Falcon was the first operational guided air-to-air missile of the United States Air Force.-Development:Development of a guided air-to-air missile began in 1946. Hughes Aircraft was awarded a contract for a subsonic missile under the project designation MX-798, which soon gave way...
air-to-air missile
Air-to-air missile
An air-to-air missile is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fuelled but sometimes liquid fuelled...
, and the Bomarc surface-to-air missile
Surface-to-air missile
A surface-to-air missile or ground-to-air missile is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles...
programs.
Phillips returned to England in 1956, where he served with the 7th Air Division of the Strategic Air Command
Strategic Air Command
The Strategic Air Command was both a Major Command of the United States Air Force and a "specified command" of the United States Department of Defense. SAC was the operational establishment in charge of America's land-based strategic bomber aircraft and land-based intercontinental ballistic...
. His participation in negotiating and completing the international agreement with the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
for the deployment and use of the American Thor
PGM-17 Thor
Thor was the first operational ballistic missile of the U.S. Air Force . Named after the Norse god of thunder, it was deployed in the United Kingdom between 1959 and September 1963 as an intermediate range ballistic missile with thermonuclear warheads. Thor was in height and in diameter. It was...
nuclear-armed intermediate-range ballistic missile
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
An intermediate-range ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a range of 3,000–5,500 km , between a medium-range ballistic missile and an intercontinental ballistic missile...
(IRBM). This latter assignment earned Phillips the Legion of Merit
Legion of Merit
The Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements...
medal.
Phillips returned to the United States in 1959, and he was assigned to the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division of the Air Research and Development Command, in Los Angeles, California
Los Angeles, California
Los Angeles , with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621, is the most populous city in California, USA and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City. It has an area of , and is located in Southern California...
, as the Director of the Minuteman
LGM-30 Minuteman
The LGM-30 Minuteman is a U.S. nuclear missile, a land-based intercontinental ballistic missile . As of 2010, the version LGM-30G Minuteman-III is the only land-based ICBM in service in the United States...
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
Intercontinental ballistic missile
An intercontinental ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a long range typically designed for nuclear weapons delivery...
Program (ICBM).
NASA service
In 1964, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight George E. Mueller admired General Phillips' skill in managing the Minuteman and other Air Force projects, and proposed hiring him as program controller of Manned Space Flight. Phillips' Air Force superior agreed, on the condition that Phillips be hired as Director of the Apollo Manned Lunar Landing Program. In December, this was accomplished and Phillips was assigned to NASA. By this time, he had risen to the rank of Major generalMajor general (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general...
.
Phillips aggressively took on the job with constant daily meetings, phone contact and visits to contractor sites which kept him on the road 75 per cent of the time. He described the job to New York Times reporter John Noble Wilford
John Noble Wilford
John Noble Wilford is an author and award-winning journalist for The New York Times.Wilford's professional career began in 1956 at the Wall Street Journal, where he was a general assignment reporter and a medical reporter...
this way:
- I'm at the level which knows all the things you have to know to make a major decision. Below the program director, there isn't anyone who has the whole picture. Above the program director, the men have so many other responsibilities.
In November 1965, Phillips took a team to North American Aviation
North American Aviation
North American Aviation was a major US aerospace manufacturer, responsible for a number of historic aircraft, including the T-6 Texan trainer, the P-51 Mustang fighter, the B-25 Mitchell bomber, the F-86 Sabre jet fighter, the X-15 rocket plane, and the XB-70, as well as Apollo Command and Service...
in Downey, California, prime contractor for the Command/Service Module
Apollo Command/Service Module
The Command/Service Module was one of two spacecraft, along with the Lunar Module, used for the United States Apollo program which landed astronauts on the Moon. It was built for NASA by North American Aviation...
and also the Saturn V
Saturn V
The Saturn V was an American human-rated expendable rocket used by NASA's Apollo and Skylab programs from 1967 until 1973. A multistage liquid-fueled launch vehicle, NASA launched 13 Saturn Vs from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida with no loss of crew or payload...
launch vehicle's S-II
S-II
The S-II was the second stage of the Saturn V rocket. It was built by North American Aviation. Using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen it had five J-2 engines in a cross pattern...
second stage, to investigate problems of delays, quality shortfalls and cost overruns. On December 19, he wrote a memo to NAA president Lee Atwood
John Leland Atwood
John Leland "Lee" Atwood was an engineer and manager in the aerospace industry. He worked in various prominent positions at North American Aviation for over 35 years. The International Aerospace Hall of Fame invested Atwood in 1984. Atwood Dorm at Harvey Mudd College is named after him...
with a copy of a report of his findings and some recommended fixes, which he also sent to Mueller. Mueller also sent Atwood a follow-on letter strongly expressing his disappointment with the CSM and S-II problems, requiring a response by the end of January 1966 and a follow-on visit of Phillip's team in March.
When the Apollo 1
Apollo 1
Apollo 1 was scheduled to be the first manned mission of the Apollo manned lunar landing program, with a target launch date of February 21, 1967. A cabin fire during a launch pad test on January 27 at Launch Pad 34 at Cape Canaveral killed all three crew members: Command Pilot Virgil "Gus"...
fire killed three astronauts in a ground test on January 27, 1967, just before what was to have been the first manned Apollo mission, a Congressional investigation uncovered the existence of what came to be known as "the Phillips report". NASA Administrator James E. Webb
James E. Webb
James Edwin Webb was an American government official who served as the second administrator of NASA from February 14, 1961 to October 7, 1968....
was called before Congress and testified he was unaware of the existence of this report, which ignited some Congressmen's and Senators' criticism of NASA and the selection of North American as the contractor. However, with the political support of President Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Baines Johnson , often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States after his service as the 37th Vice President of the United States...
, this controversy blew over and over the next eighteen months, Apollo got back on track toward manned missions and the goal of a first lunar landing before 1970.
At a small dinner party before the launch of Apollo 10
Apollo 10
Apollo 10 was the fourth manned mission in the American Apollo space program. It was an F type mission—its purpose was to be a "dry run" for the Apollo 11 mission, testing all of the procedures and components of a Moon landing without actually landing on the Moon itself. The mission included the...
in May 1969, Dr. Wernher von Braun
Wernher von Braun
Wernher Magnus Maximilian, Freiherr von Braun was a German rocket scientist, aerospace engineer, space architect, and one of the leading figures in the development of rocket technology in Nazi Germany during World War II and in the United States after that.A former member of the Nazi party,...
, director of the Marshall Space Flight Center
Marshall Space Flight Center
The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center is the U.S. government's civilian rocketry and spacecraft propulsion research center. The largest center of NASA, MSFC's first mission was developing the Saturn launch vehicles for the Apollo moon program...
in Huntsville, Ala., praised General Phillips as the one most responsible for pulling the many pieces of the Apollo program together and making them work, on time.
During the Apollo 11
Apollo 11
In early 1969, Bill Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective in August 1969 and announced his retirement as an astronaut. At that point Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup Command Module Pilot in case Apollo 11 was...
mission in July 1969 which achieved the program's manned landing goal, Phillips announced his intention to leave NASA and return to Air Force duty. During his NASA service, he had been promoted to Lieutenant general
Lieutenant General (United States)
In the United States Army, the United States Air Force and the United States Marine Corps, lieutenant general is a three-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-9. Lieutenant general ranks above major general and below general...
.
Return to active duty
In September 1969, Phillips was placed in command of the Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO), of the Air Force Systems CommandAir Force Systems Command
Air Force Systems Command is a former United States Air Force command. Its headquarters was located at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland...
in Los Angeles.
In August 1972, Phillips was apponted as the Director of the National Security Agency
Director of the National Security Agency
The Director of the National Security Agency is the highest-ranking official in the National Security Agency, which is a Defense Agency within the U.S. Department of Defense. The Director of the NSA also concurrently serves as Chief of the Central Security Service and as Commander of U.S. Cyber...
(N.S.A.) and also as the Chief of the Central Security Service
Central Security Service
The Central Security Service is an agency of the United States Department of Defense, established in 1972 by a Presidential Directive to promote full partnership between the National Security Agency and the Service Cryptologic Elements of the United States Armed Forces.-Organization:The blue...
. After two years in those positions, Phillips was assigned as the Commander of the Air Force Systems Command, in August 1973, at Andrews Air Force Base
Andrews Air Force Base
Joint Base Andrews is a United States military facility located in Prince George's County, Maryland. The facility is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force 11th Wing, Air Force District of Washington ....
, Maryland.
He retired from the Air Force in 1975.
Awards and honors
Phillips was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service MedalAir Force Distinguished Service Medal
The Air Force Distinguished Service Medal was created by an act of the United States Congress on July 6, 1960. The medal was intended as a new decoration of the United States Air Force to replace the policy of awarding the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Air Force personnel.The Air Force...
in September 1969 for his service with NASA, and once again in July 1972 for his service as the Commander of SAMSO. Phillips also was awarded two NASA Distinguished Service Medal
NASA Distinguished Service Medal
The NASA Distinguished Service Medal is the highest award which may be bestowed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States...
s by that agency, in 1968, and in 1969, for his distinguished contributions to the Apollo Program.
Phillips held an honorary doctor of laws degree from the University of Wyoming. He was also a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a non-profit professional association headquartered in New York City that is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence...
(I.E.E.E.), and as a member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics is the professional society for the field of aerospace engineering. The AIAA was founded in 1963 from the merger of two earlier societies: the American Rocket Society , founded in 1930 as the American Interplanetary Society , and the Institute...
. He was selected for a fellowship by that organization in October 1969 for "notable and valuable contributions to sciences and technology." In addition, Phillips was a fellow of the American Astronautical Society
American Astronautical Society
Formed in 1954, the American Astronautical Society is an independent scientific and technical group in the United States dedicated to the advancement of space science and exploration. AAS supports NASA's Vision for Space Exploration and is a member of the Coalition for Space Exploration and the...
; an honorary member of the national business fraternity, Alpha Kappa Psi
Alpha Kappa Psi
ΑΚΨ is the oldest and largest professional business fraternity. The Alpha Kappa Psi Fraternity was founded on October 5, 1904 at New York University, and was incorporated on May 20, 1905...
; a member of the Board of Governors of the "National Space Club"; a member of the Board of Directors of the United Services Automobile Association, and the president of the Military Benefit Association
Military Benefit Association
The Military Benefit Association, based in Chantilly, Virginia, was founded in 1956 and is one of the largest non-profit insurance associations in the United States sponsoring insurance plans and other membership benefits to the military and federal civilian communities.Military Benefit Association...
.
On September 26, 1971, Gen. Phillips was awarded the Smithsonian Institution's Langley Medal in aviation and space exploration
Space exploration
Space exploration is the use of space technology to explore outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft....
for his contributions to the Apollo Project from 1964 to 1969. He was the 14th recipient of the Langley Medal since the award was first presented to the Wright Brothers
Wright brothers
The Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur , were two Americans credited with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903...
in 1909. In April 1971, Gen. Phillips was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering
National Academy of Engineering
The National Academy of Engineering is a government-created non-profit institution in the United States, that was founded in 1964 under the same congressional act that led to the founding of the National Academy of Sciences...
for his leadership and his direction of the Minuteman missile Program and of the Apollo Program. Phillips received the General Thomas D. White U.S. Air Force Space Trophy on September 11, 1972, and also the Flying Tiger Pilot Trophy (awarded by the American Volunteer Group
American Volunteer Group
The American Volunteer Groups were volunteer air units organized by the United States government to aid the Nationalist government of China against Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War...
) on July 7, 1973.