Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge
Encyclopedia
Silvio O. Conte National Fish and Wildlife Refuge was established in 1997 to conserve, protect and enhance the abundance and diversity of native plant, fish and wildlife species and the ecosystem
s on which they depend throughout the 7200000 acres (29,137.4 km²) Connecticut River
watershed
. The watershed covers large areas of Vermont
, New Hampshire
, Massachusetts
and Connecticut
. It contains a great diversity of habitats, notably: northern forest valuable as nesting habitat for migrant thrush
es, warbler
s and other birds; rivers and streams used by shad
, salmon
, herring
and other migratory fishes; and an internationally significant complex of high-quality tidal fresh, brackish and salt marsh
es.
The refuge works in partnership with a wide variety of individuals and organizations to provide environmental education, to encourage and support appropriate habitat conservation
and management on public and private lands, and to protect additional habitat.
The refuge has three cooperative visitor centers: in Colebrook, New Hampshire
; at the Montshire Museum of Science
in Norwich, Vermont
; and Great Falls Discovery Center near the headquarters in Turners Falls, Massachusetts
. The refuge currently consists of seven units (small tracts) and two divisions (large tracts): 33 acres (13.4 ha) of wetlands and a riverine sand spit that hosts a federally-listed beetle in Cromwell, Connecticut
; a 4 acres (1.6 ha) island in Deerfield, Massachusetts
; 30 acres (12.1 ha) at the base of Mount Toby
in Sunderland, Massachusetts
; an 18 acres (7.3 ha) upland and wetland parcel in Westfield, Massachusetts
; 140 acres (56.7 ha) on Mount Tom
in Holyoke, Massachusetts
; 20 acres (8.1 ha) along the river in Greenfield, Massachusetts
; 278 acres (112.5 ha) which host a federally endangered plant in Putney, Vermont
; 1023 acres (414 ha) on the Mohawk River
in Columbia, New Hampshire
(the newest division, which opened in 2007) ; 3670 acres (1,485.2 ha) surrounding the Audubon Society of New Hampshire's Pondicherry Refuge in Jefferson, New Hampshire
; and 26000 acres (10,521.8 ha) in the Nulhegan Basin in Essex County, Vermont
.
The refuge is named for Silvio O. Conte
, a former member of the United States House of Representatives
for Massachusetts.
These "invasive" species pose a great threat to the native biodiversity
the refuge was established to protect, so refuge staff are very active in educating the public and specific target audiences about the issue, as well as working on early detection and rapid response and control projects.
Only a small number of the thousands of species that have been either purposefully or accidentally introduced into the watershed have the potential to become, or have already become, invasive. However, when certain species are introduced from other places and find conditions favorable, they may be able to out-compete native species, especially if they have no predators adapted to control them in their new location. In fact, many of these species were introduced specifically because they were easy to establish, hardy and disease resistant. In addition to the initial introductions, human activities can favor the spread of many of these species. When a species can spread into natural communities, become established, displace native species, and cause ecological and economic damage, it is said to have become invasive.
communis) and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) degrade wetlands throughout the watershed, these two plants seem much more widespread in Connecticut, affecting a great number of wetland acres there. Another plant affecting both wetland and upland habitats in Connecticut is Japanese stilt grass (Microstegium vimineum
). Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), Japanese knotweed
(Polygonum cuspidatum), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), buckthorns (Rhamnus cathartica
and Rhamnus frangula
), and Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii
) are widespread in upland areas, with the knotweed extending up into New Hampshire and Vermont. Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum
) is a problem in many ponds and lakes in the watershed.
) is a freshwater clam that first entered North America in the early 1900s, reaching the mid-Atlantic states in the 1970s and 1980s. The animal obtains a size of approximately one-half inch as an adult. The Asiatic clam has been identified in the lower reach of the Connecticut River. It is of great concern because it has an incredible propensity to reproduce: an average of 70,000 offspring per adult per year. It is of great economic concern because of its ability to clog industrial water intake pipes. It is a serious environmental threat to the ecosystem because it will displace native mollusk species. It has the potential to greatly disrupt native fish and other aquatic animal and plant species as a result of its physical presence (10,000 to 20,000 individuals per square yard) and its impact on the food web.
Zebra mussel
s (Dreissena polymorpha), although not yet introduced into the Connecticut River system, could do very significant harm to native freshwater mussels. The animal obtains a size of approximately ½ inch to 1½ inches as an adult. It is of great concern because similar to the Asiatic clam (above), it has an incredible propensity to reproduce. It is also of great economic concern because of its observed ability to clog water intake pipes of waste water treatment plants, electric generation plants and industrial operations. It is a serious environmental threat to the ecosystem because it will displace native mollusk species. It has the potential to greatly disrupt native fish and other aquatic animal and plant species as a result of its physical presence and its impact on the food web. Because of the incredible populations of these animals that build up, they filter from the water vast amounts of algae, phytoplankton, and zooplankton. This eliminates or greatly reduces the food supply for other organisms.
s (Cygnus olor) are increasing their populations in Connecticut and cause damage to plants which provide food for other waterfowl as well as outcompeting other waterfowl for nesting habitat.
s have caused widespread damage over the years. In addition, attempts to control them have severely affected non-target native species. DDT
spraying for gypsy moth control in the 1950s and 1960s severely depressed the populations of many butterflies and other insects. The woolly adelgid, an introduced aphid
(Adelges tsugae), is presently killing hemlock
trees, often found on steep slopes near the rivers in Connecticut, posing potential erosion problems. Diseases, such as chestnut blight
, Dutch elm disease
, and a fungus affecting butternut trees also have major impacts on species and the makeup of natural communities.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
s on which they depend throughout the 7200000 acres (29,137.4 km²) Connecticut River
Connecticut River
The Connecticut River is the largest and longest river in New England, and also an American Heritage River. It flows roughly south, starting from the Fourth Connecticut Lake in New Hampshire. After flowing through the remaining Connecticut Lakes and Lake Francis, it defines the border between the...
watershed
Drainage basin
A drainage basin is an extent or an area of land where surface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean...
. The watershed covers large areas of Vermont
Vermont
Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state ranks 43rd in land area, , and 45th in total area. Its population according to the 2010 census, 630,337, is the second smallest in the country, larger only than Wyoming. It is the only New England...
, New Hampshire
New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
and Connecticut
Connecticut
Connecticut is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, and the state of New York to the west and the south .Connecticut is named for the Connecticut River, the major U.S. river that approximately...
. It contains a great diversity of habitats, notably: northern forest valuable as nesting habitat for migrant thrush
Thrush (bird)
The thrushes, family Turdidae, are a group of passerine birds that occur worldwide.-Characteristics:Thrushes are plump, soft-plumaged, small to medium-sized birds, inhabiting wooded areas, and often feed on the ground or eat small fruit. The smallest thrush may be the Forest Rock-thrush, at and...
es, warbler
Warbler
There are a number of Passeriformes called "warblers". They are not particularly closely related, but share some characteristics, such as being fairly small, vocal and insectivorous....
s and other birds; rivers and streams used by shad
Shad
The shads or river herrings comprise the genus Alosa, fish related to herring in the family Clupeidae. They are distinct from others in that family by having a deeper body and spawning in rivers. The several species frequent different areas on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea....
, salmon
Salmon
Salmon is the common name for several species of fish in the family Salmonidae. Several other fish in the same family are called trout; the difference is often said to be that salmon migrate and trout are resident, but this distinction does not strictly hold true...
, herring
Herring
Herring is an oily fish of the genus Clupea, found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans, including the Baltic Sea. Three species of Clupea are recognized. The main taxa, the Atlantic herring and the Pacific herring may each be divided into subspecies...
and other migratory fishes; and an internationally significant complex of high-quality tidal fresh, brackish and salt marsh
Marsh
In geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of wetland that is subject to frequent or continuous flood. Typically the water is shallow and features grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, other herbaceous plants, and moss....
es.
The refuge works in partnership with a wide variety of individuals and organizations to provide environmental education, to encourage and support appropriate habitat conservation
Habitat conservation
Habitat conservation is a land management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore, habitat areas for wild plants and animals, especially conservation reliant species, and prevent their extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range...
and management on public and private lands, and to protect additional habitat.
The refuge has three cooperative visitor centers: in Colebrook, New Hampshire
Colebrook, New Hampshire
Colebrook is a town in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 2,301 at the 2010 census. Situated in the Great North Woods Region, it is bounded on the west by the Connecticut River and home to Beaver Brook Falls Natural Area....
; at the Montshire Museum of Science
Montshire Museum of Science
The Montshire Museum of Science is a small, hands-on, self-guided science museum located in Norwich, Vermont, in the United States. It has roughly 150,000 visitors annually. The museum, including the building and nature trails, is located on over 110 acres of land. It has exhibits on anatomy,...
in Norwich, Vermont
Norwich, Vermont
Norwich is a town in Windsor County, Vermont, United States, located along the Connecticut River opposite Hanover, New Hampshire. The population was 3,544 at the 2000 census....
; and Great Falls Discovery Center near the headquarters in Turners Falls, Massachusetts
Turners Falls, Massachusetts
Turners Falls is an unincorporated village and census-designated place in the town of Montague in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 4,441 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area...
. The refuge currently consists of seven units (small tracts) and two divisions (large tracts): 33 acres (13.4 ha) of wetlands and a riverine sand spit that hosts a federally-listed beetle in Cromwell, Connecticut
Cromwell, Connecticut
Cromwell is a town in Middlesex County, Connecticut, United States located in the middle of the state. The population was 12,871 at the 2000 census.The town was named after Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England.-Points of interest:...
; a 4 acres (1.6 ha) island in Deerfield, Massachusetts
Deerfield, Massachusetts
Deerfield is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 4,750 as of the 2000 census. Deerfield is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area in Western Massachusetts, lying only north of the city of Springfield.Deerfield includes the...
; 30 acres (12.1 ha) at the base of Mount Toby
Mount Toby
Mount Toby, , is the highest summit of a sprawling collection of mostly wooded hills and knolls that rise from a distinct plateau-like upland in the towns of Sunderland and Leverett, Massachusetts, just east of the Connecticut River. This mountain mass, part of the Metacomet Ridge geology, is oval...
in Sunderland, Massachusetts
Sunderland, Massachusetts
Sunderland is a town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, part of the Pioneer Valley. The population was 3,777 as of the 2000 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area....
; an 18 acres (7.3 ha) upland and wetland parcel in Westfield, Massachusetts
Westfield, Massachusetts
Westfield is a city in Hampden County, in the Pioneer Valley of western Massachusetts, United States. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 41,094 at the 2010 census. The ZIP Code is 01085 for homes and businesses, 01086 for Westfield State...
; 140 acres (56.7 ha) on Mount Tom
Mount Tom (Massachusetts)
Mount Tom, , is a steep, rugged traprock mountain peak on the west bank of the Connecticut River 4.5 miles northwest of downtown Holyoke, Massachusetts. The mountain is the southernmost and highest peak of the Mount Tom Range and the highest traprock peak of the long Metacomet Ridge...
in Holyoke, Massachusetts
Holyoke, Massachusetts
Holyoke is a city in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States, between the western bank of the Connecticut River and the Mount Tom Range of mountains. As of the 2010 Census, the city had a population of 39,880...
; 20 acres (8.1 ha) along the river in Greenfield, Massachusetts
Greenfield, Massachusetts
Greenfield is a city in Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 17,456 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Franklin County. Greenfield is home to Greenfield Community College, the Pioneer Valley Symphony Orchestra, and the Franklin County Fair...
; 278 acres (112.5 ha) which host a federally endangered plant in Putney, Vermont
Putney, Vermont
Putney is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States. The population was 2,634 at the 2000 census.On December 26, 1753 Col.Josiah Willard led a proprietors' petition for a Putney charter which was issued by Governor Benning Wentworth of the New Hampshire Grants under King George II of England...
; 1023 acres (414 ha) on the Mohawk River
Mohawk River (New Hampshire)
The Mohawk River is a river in northern New Hampshire in the United States. It is a tributary of the Connecticut River, which flows south to Long Island Sound, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean....
in Columbia, New Hampshire
Columbia, New Hampshire
Columbia is a town in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 757 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Berlin, NH–VT micropolitan statistical area.-History:...
(the newest division, which opened in 2007) ; 3670 acres (1,485.2 ha) surrounding the Audubon Society of New Hampshire's Pondicherry Refuge in Jefferson, New Hampshire
Jefferson, New Hampshire
Jefferson is a town in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 1,107 at the 2010 census. It is home to parts of the White Mountain National Forest in the south and northeast and to two theme parks: Santa's Village and...
; and 26000 acres (10,521.8 ha) in the Nulhegan Basin in Essex County, Vermont
Essex County, Vermont
Essex County is the county located in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Vermont. As of 2010, the population was 6,306, making it the least-populous county in both Vermont and New England...
.
The refuge is named for Silvio O. Conte
Silvio O. Conte
Silvio Ottavio Conte was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives for 16 terms, from January 3, 1959, until his death.-Birth:...
, a former member of the United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...
for Massachusetts.
Invasive species
People have spread species from one geographic area to another throughout history, inadvertently as well as purposefully. Usually, this does not create a problem. However, there are a small percentage of species, that when removed from the insects, diseases, and competing species that control their numbers in their native area, become established, spread rapidly, displace native species, and may even change the way an ecosystem works.These "invasive" species pose a great threat to the native biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
the refuge was established to protect, so refuge staff are very active in educating the public and specific target audiences about the issue, as well as working on early detection and rapid response and control projects.
Only a small number of the thousands of species that have been either purposefully or accidentally introduced into the watershed have the potential to become, or have already become, invasive. However, when certain species are introduced from other places and find conditions favorable, they may be able to out-compete native species, especially if they have no predators adapted to control them in their new location. In fact, many of these species were introduced specifically because they were easy to establish, hardy and disease resistant. In addition to the initial introductions, human activities can favor the spread of many of these species. When a species can spread into natural communities, become established, displace native species, and cause ecological and economic damage, it is said to have become invasive.
Invasive plants
Although some birds and mammals have been introduced, fish and plants have been the most common introductions. According to Bickford and Dymon (1990), 950 of the 2,700 plants in Massachusetts have been introduced. Problems are being caused by invasive plants throughout the watershed. Although common reed (PhragmitesPhragmites
Phragmites, the Common reed, is a large perennial grass found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world. Phragmites australis is sometimes regarded as the sole species of the genus Phragmites, though some botanists divide Phragmites australis into three or four species...
communis) and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) degrade wetlands throughout the watershed, these two plants seem much more widespread in Connecticut, affecting a great number of wetland acres there. Another plant affecting both wetland and upland habitats in Connecticut is Japanese stilt grass (Microstegium vimineum
Microstegium vimineum
Microstegium vimineum, commonly known as Japanese stiltgrass or Nepalese browntop, is an annual grass that is common in a wide variety of habitats and is well adapted to low light levels.-Geographic range:...
). Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), Japanese knotweed
Japanese knotweed
Japanese Knotweed is a large, herbaceous perennial plant, native to eastern Asia in Japan, China and Korea...
(Polygonum cuspidatum), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), buckthorns (Rhamnus cathartica
Rhamnus cathartica
Rhamnus cathartica , is a species in the family Rhamnaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia, from the central British Isles south to Morocco, and east to Kyrgyzstan...
and Rhamnus frangula
Rhamnus frangula
Frangula alnus, syn. Rhamnus frangula, the Alder Buckthorn, is a tall deciduous shrub in the family Rhamnaceae. It is native to Europe, northernmost Africa, and western Asia, from Ireland and Great Britain north to 68°N in Scandinavia, east to central Siberia and Xinjiang in western China, and...
), and Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii
Berberis thunbergii
Berberis thunbergii is a species of Berberis, native to Japan and eastern Asia....
) are widespread in upland areas, with the knotweed extending up into New Hampshire and Vermont. Eurasian milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum
Myriophyllum spicatum
Myriophyllum spicatum is a species of Myriophyllum native to Europe, Asia, and north Africa. It is a submerged aquatic plant, and grows in still or slow-moving water.-Description:...
) is a problem in many ponds and lakes in the watershed.
Non-indigenous fish
Non-indigenous fish species are found throughout the length of the Connecticut River and its tributaries. There are more introduced fish species in the watershed than there are native species. Of the freshwater fish species found within the watershed, there are 33 native or indigenous freshwater species and 35 non-indigenous. Many species were introduced in an effort to provide recreational fisheries, specifically, the trouts, basses, pikes and sunfishes. Native species populations were reduced because of exploitation, habitat loss and water quality degradation. Land management practices including forestry and dairy and truck farms, damming for industry, and industrial discharges resulted in altered habitat and water quality conditions that were better suited for non-indigenous species. The distributions and populations of fish are better known than those of any other aquatic species. The state fishery and heritage agencies are working together to avoid the loss of native fish species as a result of the purposeful or accidental introduction of non-native fish and plant and animal species.Invasive invertebrates
Asiatic clam (Corbicula flumineaCorbicula fluminea
Corbicula fluminea is a species of freshwater clam, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Corbiculidae.This species is of originally mainly Asian origin and thus it is often commonly called Asian clam or Asiatic clam. In the aquarium and koi pond trade it is often called Golden Clam or Golden...
) is a freshwater clam that first entered North America in the early 1900s, reaching the mid-Atlantic states in the 1970s and 1980s. The animal obtains a size of approximately one-half inch as an adult. The Asiatic clam has been identified in the lower reach of the Connecticut River. It is of great concern because it has an incredible propensity to reproduce: an average of 70,000 offspring per adult per year. It is of great economic concern because of its ability to clog industrial water intake pipes. It is a serious environmental threat to the ecosystem because it will displace native mollusk species. It has the potential to greatly disrupt native fish and other aquatic animal and plant species as a result of its physical presence (10,000 to 20,000 individuals per square yard) and its impact on the food web.
Zebra mussel
Zebra mussel
The zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, is a small freshwater mussel. This species was originally native to the lakes of southeast Russia being first described in 1769 by a German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in the Ural, Volga and Dnieper rivers. They are still found nearby, as Pontic and Caspian...
s (Dreissena polymorpha), although not yet introduced into the Connecticut River system, could do very significant harm to native freshwater mussels. The animal obtains a size of approximately ½ inch to 1½ inches as an adult. It is of great concern because similar to the Asiatic clam (above), it has an incredible propensity to reproduce. It is also of great economic concern because of its observed ability to clog water intake pipes of waste water treatment plants, electric generation plants and industrial operations. It is a serious environmental threat to the ecosystem because it will displace native mollusk species. It has the potential to greatly disrupt native fish and other aquatic animal and plant species as a result of its physical presence and its impact on the food web. Because of the incredible populations of these animals that build up, they filter from the water vast amounts of algae, phytoplankton, and zooplankton. This eliminates or greatly reduces the food supply for other organisms.
Mute swans
Mute swanMute Swan
The Mute Swan is a species of swan, and thus a member of the duck, goose and swan family Anatidae. It is native to much of Europe and Asia, and the far north of Africa. It is also an introduced species in North America, Australasia and southern Africa. The name 'mute' derives from it being less...
s (Cygnus olor) are increasing their populations in Connecticut and cause damage to plants which provide food for other waterfowl as well as outcompeting other waterfowl for nesting habitat.
Introduced forest pests
Introduced forest pests are also a huge problem. Gypsy mothGypsy moth
The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, is a moth in the family Lymantriidae of Eurasian origin. Originally ranging from Europe to Asia, it was introduced to North America in the late 1860s and has been expanding its range ever since...
s have caused widespread damage over the years. In addition, attempts to control them have severely affected non-target native species. DDT
DDT
DDT is one of the most well-known synthetic insecticides. It is a chemical with a long, unique, and controversial history....
spraying for gypsy moth control in the 1950s and 1960s severely depressed the populations of many butterflies and other insects. The woolly adelgid, an introduced aphid
Aphid
Aphids, also known as plant lice and in Britain and the Commonwealth as greenflies, blackflies or whiteflies, are small sap sucking insects, and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions...
(Adelges tsugae), is presently killing hemlock
Tsuga
Tsuga is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. The common name hemlock is derived from a perceived similarity in the smell of its crushed foliage to that of the unrelated plant poison hemlock....
trees, often found on steep slopes near the rivers in Connecticut, posing potential erosion problems. Diseases, such as chestnut blight
Chestnut blight
The pathogenic fungus Cryphonectria parasitica is a member of the ascomycota category, and is the main cause of chestnut blight, a devastating disease of the American chestnut tree that caused a mass extinction in the early 1900s of this once plentiful tree from its historic range in the eastern...
, Dutch elm disease
Dutch elm disease
Dutch elm disease is a disease caused by a member of the sac fungi category, affecting elm trees which is spread by the elm bark beetle. Although believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease has been accidentally introduced into America and Europe, where it has devastated native...
, and a fungus affecting butternut trees also have major impacts on species and the makeup of natural communities.