War of Jenkins' Ear
Encyclopedia
The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748, with major operations largely ended by 1742. Its unusual name, coined by Thomas Carlyle
in 1858, relates to Robert Jenkins, captain of a British merchant ship, who exhibited his severed ear in Parliament
following the boarding of his vessel by Spanish coast guards in 1731. This affair and a number of similar incidents sparked a war against the Spanish Empire, ostensibly to encourage the Spanish not to renege on the lucrative asiento
contract (permission to sell slaves in Spanish America).
After 1742 the war was subsumed by the wider War of the Austrian Succession
involving most of the powers of Europe. Peace arrived with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
in 1748.
, the Treaty of Utrecht
in 1713 gave Britain a thirty-year asiento
, or contract-right, to supply an unlimited number of slaves to the Spanish colonies, and 500 tons of goods per year. This provided British traders and smugglers potential inroads into the (traditionally) closed markets in Spanish America. However, Britain and Spain were often at war during this period, fighting one another in the War of the Quadruple Alliance
(1718–20), the Blockade of Porto Bello
(1726) and the Anglo-Spanish War
(1727–1729).
In the Treaty of Seville (1729)
, following the Anglo-Spanish War, Britain had accorded Spanish warships the right to stop British traders and verify if the Asiento right was respected. Over time the Spanish became suspicious that British traders were abusing the contract and began to board ships and confiscate their cargoes. After very strained relations between 1727 and 1732, the situation improved between 1732 and 1737, when Sir Robert Walpole
supported Spain during the War of Polish Succession. But the causes of the problems remained and when the opposition against Walpole grew, so did the anti-Spanish sentiment amongst the British public.
Walpole gave in to the pressure and approved the sending of troops to the West Indies and a squadron to Gibraltar
under Admiral Haddock
, causing an immediate Spanish reaction. Spain asked for financial compensation, which led to the British demand to annul the "Visitation Right" agreed to in the Treaty of Seville (1729)
. In reaction, King Philip V of Spain
annulled the "Asiento Right" and had all British ships in Spanish harbours confiscated.
The Convention of Pardo
, an attempt to mediate the dispute, broke down. On 14 August, Britain recalled its ambassador to Spain and officially declared war on 23 October 1739. Despite the Pacte de Famille
, France remained neutral. Walpole was deeply reluctant to declare war and reportedly remarked of the jubilation in Britain "they are ringing their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands".
' s captain, Robert Jenkins, who had been accused of piracy. Fandiño told Jenkins, "Go, and tell your King that I will do the same, if he dares to do the same." In March 1738, Jenkins was ordered to attend Parliament, presumably to repeat his story before a committee of the House of Commons
. According to some accounts, he produced the severed ear when he attended, although no detailed record of the hearing exists. The incident was considered alongside various other cases of "Spanish Depredations upon the British Subjects," and was perceived as an insult to the honour of the nation and a clear casus belli
.
One of the first actions was the British capture, on 22 November 1739, of Porto Bello
, a silver-exporting town on the coast of Panama
in an attempt to damage Spain's finances and weaken its naval capabilities. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice Admiral Edward Vernon
who captured it within twenty-four hours. The British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having destroyed its fortifications, port and warehouses. The battle led the Spanish to change their trading practices. Rather than trading at centralised ports with a few large treasure fleets, they began using a larger number of smaller convoys trading at a wide variety of ports. They also began to travel around Cape Horn
to trade on the west coast. Porto Bello's economy was severely damaged, and did not recover until the building of the Panama Canal
more than a century later.
In Britain the victory was greeted with much celebration, and in 1740, at a dinner in honour of Vernon in London, the song "Rule Britannia" was performed in public for the first time. Portobello Road
in London is named after this victory and more medals were awarded than for any other event in the eighteenth century. The conquest of a port in Spain's American empire was widely considered a foregone conclusion by many Patriot Whigs
and opposition Tories
who pressed a reluctant Walpole to launch larger naval expeditions to the Gulf of Mexico
.
The success of the Porto Bello operation led the British in September 1740 to send a squadron under Commodore George Anson
to attack Spain's possessions in the Pacific
. Before they even reached the Pacific a large amount of the expedition had died from disease, and they were in no shape to launch any sort of attack. Anson reassembled his force in the Juan Fernández Islands
, allowing them to recuperate before he moved up the Chile
an coast, raiding the small town of Paita
. However he reached Acapulco
too late to intercept the yearly Manila galleon
, which had been one of the principal objectives of the expedition. He retreated across the Pacific, running into a storm which forced him to dock for repairs in Canton
. After this he made a final attempt to intercept the Manila galleon the following year. This he did on 20 June 1743 off Cape Espiritu Santo capturing more than a million gold coins.
Anson then sailed home, eventually arriving back in London more than three and a half years after he had set out, having circumnavigated the globe in the process. Less than a tenth of the force had survived the expedition, but Anson's achievements helped establish his name and wealth in Britain, leading to his later appointment as First Lord of the Admiralty.
launched an overland attack on St. Augustine
in Florida
, supported by a British naval blockade, but were repelled. The British forces led by James Oglethorpe
, the Governor of Georgia, besieged St. Augustine
for over a month before retreating, abandoning their artillery
in the process. The failure of the Royal Navy
blockade to prevent supplies reaching the settlement was a crucial factor in the collapse of the siege. Oglethorpe then began preparing Georgia for an anticipated Spanish assault.
and a Spanish fleet at Ferrol were about to combine and launch an invasion attempt on Britain itself. Although this proved not to be the case, the British kept the large bulk of their naval and land forces in southern England to act as a deterrent
.
Many in the British government were afraid to launch a major offensive against the Spanish, for fear that a large British victory would draw France into the war in order to protect the balance of power
.
). Vernon's expedition was hampered by inefficient organisation, his rivalry with the commander of his land forces, and the logistical problems of mounting and maintaining a major trans-Atlantic expedition. The strong fortifications in Cartagena and the able strategy of Spanish Commander Blas de Lezo
were decisive in repelling the attack, with heavy losses on the British side. In addition to the unfamiliar tropical climate, Vernon's men succumbed in large numbers to virulent tropical disease, primarily yellow fever
.
News of the defeat at Cartagena was a significant factor in the downfall of the British Prime Minister Robert Walpole
. Walpole's anti-war views were considered by the Opposition to have contributed to his poor prosecution of the war effort. The new government under Lord Wilmington
wanted to shift the focus of Britain's war effort away from the Americas
and into Mediterranean
. Spanish policy, dictated by Elisabeth of Parma
, also moved towards recovering lost Spanish possessions in Italy from the Austrians. In 1742 a large British fleet under Nicholas Haddock
was sent to try and intercept a Spanish army being transported from Barcelona
to Italy, which he failed to do.
, landing in Guantánamo Bay with a plan to march the forty five miles to Santiago de Cuba
and capture the city. Vernon again clashed with the army commander, and the expedition withdrew when faced with heavier Spanish opposition than expected. Vernon and his fleet remained in the Caribbean until October 1742, before heading back to Britain. The following year a smaller force led by Charles Knowles made raids upon the Venezuelan coast, attacking La Guaira in February 1743 and Puerto Cabello
in April, though neither operation was particularly successful.
. Two thousand troops under the command of Manuel de Montiano landed on St Simons Island. General Oglethorpe rallied the local forces and defeated the Spanish regulars at Bloody Marsh
and Gully Hole Creek
, forcing them to withdraw. Border clashes between Florida and Georgia continued for the next few years, but there were no further offensive operations on the American mainland by either nation.
had broken out in Europe. Principally fought by Prussia
and Austria
over possession of Silesia
, the war soon engulfed most of the major powers of Europe, who joined two competing alliances. The scale of this new war dwarfed any of the fighting in the Americas, and had drawn the main attention of Britain and Spain to operations on the European continent. The return of Vernon's fleet in 1742 marked the end of major offensive operations in the War of the Jenkins's Ear. This was confirmed by the entry of France into the war in 1744. France placed their emphasis on the war in Europe, and planned an ambitious invasion of Britain
. While it ultimately failed, it further persuaded the British policy makers of the dangers of sending significant forces to the Americas which might be needed at home.
Although an expedition to seize
the strategic French settlement of Louisbourg was launched by New Englanders in 1745, no further attacks were attempted on Spanish possessions.
captured a valuable Manila galleon
but this was more than offset by the Spanish privateering attacks on the British transatlantic triangular trade
route. They seized hundreds of British ships, operating with virtual impunity in the West Indies; they were also active in European waters. The Spanish convoys
proved almost unstoppable and so, during the Austrian phase of the war, the British attacked poorly protected French merchantmen instead.
to try to arrange a peace settlement. The death of Philip V of Spain
had brought his son Ferdinand VI
to the throne, and he was more willing to be concillitary over the issues of trade. However, because of their commitments to their Austrian allies, the British were unable to agree to Spanish demands for territory in Italy and talks broke down.
The eventual diplomatic resolution formed part of the wider settlement of the War of the Austrian Succession
by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
. The issue of the Asiento
was not mentioned in the treaty, and it had lessened in importance to both nations. The issue was finally settled by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid
in which Britain agreed to renounce its claim to the Asiento in exchange for a payment of £100,000 and allowed British trade with Spanish America under favourable conditions.
Relations between Britain and Spain dramatically improved during subsequent years thanks to a concerted effort by the Duke of Newcastle to cultivate Spain as an ally, and a wish by the Spanish government not to be seen as a puppet of France. A succession of Anglophile ministers were appointed in Spain including José de Carvajal and Ricardo Wall — all of whom were on good terms with the British Ambassador Benjamin Keene
in an effort to avoid a repeat of the War of Jenkins's Ear. One of the results of this was the Spanish decision to remain neutral during the early part of the Seven Years' War
.
The War of Jenkins's Ear is commemorated annually on the last Saturday in May at Wormsloe Plantation in Savannah
, Georgia.
Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle was a Scottish satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era.He called economics "the dismal science", wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, and became a controversial social commentator.Coming from a strict Calvinist family, Carlyle was...
in 1858, relates to Robert Jenkins, captain of a British merchant ship, who exhibited his severed ear in Parliament
Parliament of the United Kingdom
The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom, British Crown dependencies and British overseas territories, located in London...
following the boarding of his vessel by Spanish coast guards in 1731. This affair and a number of similar incidents sparked a war against the Spanish Empire, ostensibly to encourage the Spanish not to renege on the lucrative asiento
Asiento
The Asiento in the history of slavery refers to the permission given by the Spanish government to other countries to sell people as slaves to the Spanish colonies, between the years 1543 and 1834...
contract (permission to sell slaves in Spanish America).
After 1742 the war was subsumed by the wider War of the Austrian Succession
War of the Austrian Succession
The War of the Austrian Succession – including King George's War in North America, the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear, and two of the three Silesian wars – involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg.The...
involving most of the powers of Europe. Peace arrived with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 ended the War of the Austrian Succession following a congress assembled at the Imperial Free City of Aachen—Aix-la-Chapelle in French—in the west of the Holy Roman Empire, on 24 April 1748...
in 1748.
Background
At the conclusion of the War of the Spanish SuccessionWar of the Spanish Succession
The War of the Spanish Succession was fought among several European powers, including a divided Spain, over the possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under one Bourbon monarch. As France and Spain were among the most powerful states of Europe, such a unification would have...
, the Treaty of Utrecht
Treaty of Utrecht
The Treaty of Utrecht, which established the Peace of Utrecht, comprises a series of individual peace treaties, rather than a single document, signed by the belligerents in the War of Spanish Succession, in the Dutch city of Utrecht in March and April 1713...
in 1713 gave Britain a thirty-year asiento
Asiento
The Asiento in the history of slavery refers to the permission given by the Spanish government to other countries to sell people as slaves to the Spanish colonies, between the years 1543 and 1834...
, or contract-right, to supply an unlimited number of slaves to the Spanish colonies, and 500 tons of goods per year. This provided British traders and smugglers potential inroads into the (traditionally) closed markets in Spanish America. However, Britain and Spain were often at war during this period, fighting one another in the War of the Quadruple Alliance
War of the Quadruple Alliance
The War of the Quadruple Alliance was a result of the ambitions of King Philip V of Spain, his wife, Elisabeth Farnese, and his chief minister Giulio Alberoni to retake territories in Italy and to claim the French throne. It saw the defeat of Spain by an alliance of Britain, France, Austria , and...
(1718–20), the Blockade of Porto Bello
Blockade of Porto Bello
The Blockade of Porto Bello was a failed British naval action against the Spanish port of Porto Bello in present day Panama between 1726 and 1727 as part of the Anglo-Spanish War. The British were attempting to blockade the port to stop valuable treasure convoys leaving for Spain...
(1726) and the Anglo-Spanish War
Anglo-Spanish War (1727)
The Anglo-Spanish War of 1727–1729 was a limited war that took place between Great Britain and Spain during the Eighteenth Century, and consisted of a failed British attempt to blockade Porto Bello and a failed Spanish attempt to capture Gibraltar...
(1727–1729).
In the Treaty of Seville (1729)
Treaty of Seville (1729)
The Treaty of Seville was signed on 9 November 1729 between Great Britain, France, and Spain, concluding the Anglo-Spanish War .Preliminary discussions had already taken place between Britain and Spain at the Convention of Pardo and the Congress of Soissons...
, following the Anglo-Spanish War, Britain had accorded Spanish warships the right to stop British traders and verify if the Asiento right was respected. Over time the Spanish became suspicious that British traders were abusing the contract and began to board ships and confiscate their cargoes. After very strained relations between 1727 and 1732, the situation improved between 1732 and 1737, when Sir Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC , known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as having been the first Prime Minister of Great Britain....
supported Spain during the War of Polish Succession. But the causes of the problems remained and when the opposition against Walpole grew, so did the anti-Spanish sentiment amongst the British public.
Walpole gave in to the pressure and approved the sending of troops to the West Indies and a squadron to Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
under Admiral Haddock
Nicholas Haddock
Nicholas Haddock was an admiral in the British Royal Navy and a Member of Parliament .Haddock, the second son of Admiral Sir Richard Haddock, was destined for a naval career from childhood and first distinguished himself at the age of 16 as a midshipman at the Battle of Vigo in 1702...
, causing an immediate Spanish reaction. Spain asked for financial compensation, which led to the British demand to annul the "Visitation Right" agreed to in the Treaty of Seville (1729)
Treaty of Seville (1729)
The Treaty of Seville was signed on 9 November 1729 between Great Britain, France, and Spain, concluding the Anglo-Spanish War .Preliminary discussions had already taken place between Britain and Spain at the Convention of Pardo and the Congress of Soissons...
. In reaction, King Philip V of Spain
Philip V of Spain
Philip V was King of Spain from 15 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death.Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a...
annulled the "Asiento Right" and had all British ships in Spanish harbours confiscated.
The Convention of Pardo
Convention of Pardo
The Convention of Pardo was a 1739 treaty between Great Britain and Spain designed to find a solution to the issues of smuggling, the Asiento and freedom of the seas that had strained relations between the two states for the past few decades, and was agreed to try to prevent war breaking out...
, an attempt to mediate the dispute, broke down. On 14 August, Britain recalled its ambassador to Spain and officially declared war on 23 October 1739. Despite the Pacte de Famille
Pacte de Famille
The Pacte de Famille is one of three separate, but similar alliances between the Bourbon kings of France and Spain.- The first Pacte de Famille :...
, France remained neutral. Walpole was deeply reluctant to declare war and reportedly remarked of the jubilation in Britain "they are ringing their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands".
Nomenclature
The incident that gave its name to the war had occurred in 1731 when the British brig Rebecca was boarded by the Spanish coast guard La Isabela, commanded by Julio León Fandiño. After boarding, Fandiño cut off the left ear of the RebeccaHouse of Commons of Great Britain
The House of Commons of Great Britain was the lower house of the Parliament of Great Britain between 1707 and 1801. In 1707, as a result of the Acts of Union of that year, it replaced the House of Commons of England and the third estate of the Parliament of Scotland, as one of the most significant...
. According to some accounts, he produced the severed ear when he attended, although no detailed record of the hearing exists. The incident was considered alongside various other cases of "Spanish Depredations upon the British Subjects," and was perceived as an insult to the honour of the nation and a clear casus belli
Casus belli
is a Latin expression meaning the justification for acts of war. means "incident", "rupture" or indeed "case", while means bellic...
.
Capture of Porto Bello
Following the testimony of Jenkins, and petitions from other West India merchants, the opposition in Parliament voted on 28 March 1738 to send "an Address" to the King, asking his Majesty to seek redress from Spain. More than one year later, all diplomatic means having been exhausted, on 10 July 1739 King George II authorized the Admiralty Board to seek maritime reprisals against Spain. On 20 July, Vice Admiral Edward Vernon and a squadron of warships departed England bound for the West Indies to attack Spanish ships and "possessions." The actual declaration of war against Spain was not proclaimed until Saturday 23 October 1739 (Old Style).One of the first actions was the British capture, on 22 November 1739, of Porto Bello
Portobelo, Panama
Portobelo is a port city in Colón Province, Panama. It is located on the northern part of the Isthmus of Panama and has a deep natural harbor. Today, Portobelo is a sleepy city with a population of fewer than 3,000...
, a silver-exporting town on the coast of Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
in an attempt to damage Spain's finances and weaken its naval capabilities. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice Admiral Edward Vernon
Edward Vernon
Edward Vernon was an English naval officer. Vernon was born in Westminster, England and went to Westminster School. He joined the Navy in 1700 and was promoted to Lieutenant in 1702 and served on several different ships for the next five years...
who captured it within twenty-four hours. The British occupied the town for three weeks before withdrawing, having destroyed its fortifications, port and warehouses. The battle led the Spanish to change their trading practices. Rather than trading at centralised ports with a few large treasure fleets, they began using a larger number of smaller convoys trading at a wide variety of ports. They also began to travel around Cape Horn
Cape Horn
Cape Horn is the southernmost headland of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago of southern Chile, and is located on the small Hornos Island...
to trade on the west coast. Porto Bello's economy was severely damaged, and did not recover until the building of the Panama Canal
Panama Canal
The Panama Canal is a ship canal in Panama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, the canal has seen annual traffic rise from about 1,000 ships early on to 14,702 vessels measuring a total of 309.6...
more than a century later.
In Britain the victory was greeted with much celebration, and in 1740, at a dinner in honour of Vernon in London, the song "Rule Britannia" was performed in public for the first time. Portobello Road
Portobello Road
Portobello Road is a street in the Notting Hill district of The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in west London, England. It runs almost the length of Notting Hill from south to north, roughly parallel with Ladbroke Grove. On Saturdays it is home to Portobello Road Market, one of London's...
in London is named after this victory and more medals were awarded than for any other event in the eighteenth century. The conquest of a port in Spain's American empire was widely considered a foregone conclusion by many Patriot Whigs
Patriot Whigs
The Patriot Whigs and, later Patriot Party, was a group within the Whig party in Great Britain from 1725 to 1803. The group was formed in opposition to the ministry of Robert Walpole in the House of Commons in 1725, when William Pulteney and seventeen other Whigs joined with the Tory party in...
and opposition Tories
Tories (political faction)
The Tories were members of two political parties which existed, sequentially, in the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of Great Britain and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from the 17th to the early 19th centuries.-Overview:...
who pressed a reluctant Walpole to launch larger naval expeditions to the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...
.
Anson expedition
George Anson, 1st Baron Anson
Admiral of the Fleet George Anson, 1st Baron Anson PC, FRS, RN was a British admiral and a wealthy aristocrat, noted for his circumnavigation of the globe and his role overseeing the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War...
to attack Spain's possessions in the Pacific
Spanish East Indies
Spanish East Indies was a term used to describe Spanish territories in Asia-Pacific which lasted for three centuries . With the seat of government in Manila, the territory encompassed the Philippine Islands, Guam and the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, and for a period of time, parts of...
. Before they even reached the Pacific a large amount of the expedition had died from disease, and they were in no shape to launch any sort of attack. Anson reassembled his force in the Juan Fernández Islands
Juan Fernández Islands
The Juan Fernández Islands are a sparsely inhabited island group reliant on tourism and fishing in the South Pacific Ocean, situated about off the coast of Chile, and is composed of three main volcanic islands; Robinson Crusoe Island, Alejandro Selkirk Island and Santa Clara Island, the first...
, allowing them to recuperate before he moved up the Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
an coast, raiding the small town of Paita
Paita
Paita is a city in northwestern Peru. It is the capital of the Paita Province which is in the Piura Region. It is a leading seaport in that region...
. However he reached Acapulco
Acapulco
Acapulco is a city, municipality and major sea port in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific coast of Mexico, southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semi-circular bay and has been a port since the early colonial period of Mexico’s history...
too late to intercept the yearly Manila galleon
Manila Galleon
The Manila galleons or Manila-Acapulco galleons were Spanish trading ships that sailed once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean between Manila in the Philippines, and Acapulco, New Spain . The name changed reflecting the city that the ship was sailing from...
, which had been one of the principal objectives of the expedition. He retreated across the Pacific, running into a storm which forced him to dock for repairs in Canton
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
. After this he made a final attempt to intercept the Manila galleon the following year. This he did on 20 June 1743 off Cape Espiritu Santo capturing more than a million gold coins.
Anson then sailed home, eventually arriving back in London more than three and a half years after he had set out, having circumnavigated the globe in the process. Less than a tenth of the force had survived the expedition, but Anson's achievements helped establish his name and wealth in Britain, leading to his later appointment as First Lord of the Admiralty.
Florida
In 1740 the inhabitants of GeorgiaProvince of Georgia
The Province of Georgia was one of the Southern colonies in British America. It was the last of the thirteen original colonies established by Great Britain in what later became the United States...
launched an overland attack on St. Augustine
St. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine is a city in the northeast section of Florida and the county seat of St. Johns County, Florida, United States. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer and admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, it is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city and port in the continental United...
in Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
, supported by a British naval blockade, but were repelled. The British forces led by James Oglethorpe
James Oglethorpe
James Edward Oglethorpe was a British general, member of Parliament, philanthropist, and founder of the colony of Georgia...
, the Governor of Georgia, besieged St. Augustine
Siege of St. Augustine
The Siege of St. Augustine took place in July 1740 during the War of Jenkins' Ear, in which Britain and her colonies attacked Spanish colonies in the Americas.-Background:...
for over a month before retreating, abandoning their artillery
Artillery
Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...
in the process. The failure of the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
blockade to prevent supplies reaching the settlement was a crucial factor in the collapse of the siege. Oglethorpe then began preparing Georgia for an anticipated Spanish assault.
French neutrality
When war had broken out in 1739 it was expected in both Britain and Spain that France would join the war on the Spanish side. This played a large role in the tactical calculations of the British. If the Spanish and French were to operate together they would have a superiority of ninety ships of the line. In 1740 there was an invasion scare when it was believed that a French fleet at BrestBrest, France
Brest is a city in the Finistère department in Brittany in northwestern France. Located in a sheltered position not far from the western tip of the Breton peninsula, and the western extremity of metropolitan France, Brest is an important harbour and the second French military port after Toulon...
and a Spanish fleet at Ferrol were about to combine and launch an invasion attempt on Britain itself. Although this proved not to be the case, the British kept the large bulk of their naval and land forces in southern England to act as a deterrent
Deterrence theory
Deterrence theory gained increased prominence as a military strategy during the Cold War with regard to the use of nuclear weapons, and features prominently in current United States foreign policy regarding the development of nuclear technology in North Korea and Iran. Deterrence theory however was...
.
Many in the British government were afraid to launch a major offensive against the Spanish, for fear that a large British victory would draw France into the war in order to protect the balance of power
Balance of power in international relations
In international relations, a balance of power exists when there is parity or stability between competing forces. The concept describes a state of affairs in the international system and explains the behavior of states in that system...
.
Battle of Cartagena
The largest action of the war was a major amphibious attack launched by the British under Admiral Edward Vernon in March, 1741 against Cartagena de Indias, one of Spain's principal gold-trading ports in their colony of New Granada (today ColombiaColombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
). Vernon's expedition was hampered by inefficient organisation, his rivalry with the commander of his land forces, and the logistical problems of mounting and maintaining a major trans-Atlantic expedition. The strong fortifications in Cartagena and the able strategy of Spanish Commander Blas de Lezo
Blas de Lezo
Blas de Lezo y Olavarrieta , also known as "Patapalo" , and later as "Mediohombre" for the many wounds suffered in his long military life, was a Spanish admiral, and one of the greatest strategists and commanders in the history of the Spanish Navy...
were decisive in repelling the attack, with heavy losses on the British side. In addition to the unfamiliar tropical climate, Vernon's men succumbed in large numbers to virulent tropical disease, primarily yellow fever
Yellow fever
Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. The virus is a 40 to 50 nm enveloped RNA virus with positive sense of the Flaviviridae family....
.
Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC , known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as having been the first Prime Minister of Great Britain....
. Walpole's anti-war views were considered by the Opposition to have contributed to his poor prosecution of the war effort. The new government under Lord Wilmington
Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington
Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington KG, KB, PC was a British Whig statesman who served continuously in government from 1715 until his death. He served as the nominal head of government from 1742 until his death in 1743, but was merely a figurehead for the true leader of the government, Lord...
wanted to shift the focus of Britain's war effort away from the Americas
Americas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
and into Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
. Spanish policy, dictated by Elisabeth of Parma
Elisabeth of Parma
Elisabeth Farnese , the daughter of Odoardo Farnese and Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg, was Queen consort of Spain who exerted great influence over Spain's foreign policy.-Parma:Elisabeth was born at the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, the capital of a duchy which had been ruled by...
, also moved towards recovering lost Spanish possessions in Italy from the Austrians. In 1742 a large British fleet under Nicholas Haddock
Nicholas Haddock
Nicholas Haddock was an admiral in the British Royal Navy and a Member of Parliament .Haddock, the second son of Admiral Sir Richard Haddock, was destined for a naval career from childhood and first distinguished himself at the age of 16 as a midshipman at the Battle of Vigo in 1702...
was sent to try and intercept a Spanish army being transported from Barcelona
Barcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
to Italy, which he failed to do.
Raids against Cuba and Venezuela
Several other British attacks took place in the Caribbean with little consequence on the geopolitical situation in the Atlantic. The weakened British forces under Vernon launched an attack against CubaBattle of Santiago de Cuba (1741)
The Battle of Santiago de Cuba was fought on 21 July 1741, and was one of the most decisive engagements of the War of Jenkins' Ear. This expedition resulted in a failed British attempt to capture Santiago de Cuba and it aggravated another misfortune of Admiral Sir Edward Vernon.-Background:In the...
, landing in Guantánamo Bay with a plan to march the forty five miles to Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city of Cuba and capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island, some south-east of the Cuban capital of Havana....
and capture the city. Vernon again clashed with the army commander, and the expedition withdrew when faced with heavier Spanish opposition than expected. Vernon and his fleet remained in the Caribbean until October 1742, before heading back to Britain. The following year a smaller force led by Charles Knowles made raids upon the Venezuelan coast, attacking La Guaira in February 1743 and Puerto Cabello
Battle of Puerto Cabello
The Battle of Puerto Cabello was fought during the War of Jenkins' Ear on 16 April 1743 and resulted in another defeat of British forces.-Background:...
in April, though neither operation was particularly successful.
Invasion of Georgia
In 1742 the Spanish launched an attempt to seize the British colony of GeorgiaProvince of Georgia
The Province of Georgia was one of the Southern colonies in British America. It was the last of the thirteen original colonies established by Great Britain in what later became the United States...
. Two thousand troops under the command of Manuel de Montiano landed on St Simons Island. General Oglethorpe rallied the local forces and defeated the Spanish regulars at Bloody Marsh
Battle of Bloody Marsh
The Battle of Bloody Marsh took place on July 18, 1742 between Spanish and British forces, and the latter were victorious. Part of the War of Jenkin's Ear, the battle was for control of the road between the British forts of Frederica and St. Simons, to control St. Simons Island and the forts'...
and Gully Hole Creek
Battle of Gully Hole Creek
The Battle of Gully Hole Creek was a skirmish in 1742 on St. Simons Island, Georgia, between Spanish troops from the Spanish colony of Florida and British colonial troops on St. Simons Island. It was won by the British...
, forcing them to withdraw. Border clashes between Florida and Georgia continued for the next few years, but there were no further offensive operations on the American mainland by either nation.
Merger with wider war
By mid 1742 the War of the Austrian SuccessionWar of the Austrian Succession
The War of the Austrian Succession – including King George's War in North America, the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear, and two of the three Silesian wars – involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg.The...
had broken out in Europe. Principally fought by Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
and Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
over possession of Silesia
Silesia
Silesia is a historical region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with smaller parts also in the Czech Republic, and Germany.Silesia is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city and historical capital is Wrocław...
, the war soon engulfed most of the major powers of Europe, who joined two competing alliances. The scale of this new war dwarfed any of the fighting in the Americas, and had drawn the main attention of Britain and Spain to operations on the European continent. The return of Vernon's fleet in 1742 marked the end of major offensive operations in the War of the Jenkins's Ear. This was confirmed by the entry of France into the war in 1744. France placed their emphasis on the war in Europe, and planned an ambitious invasion of Britain
Planned French Invasion of Britain (1744)
A planned invasion of Great Britain was to be undertaken by France in 1744 shortly after the declaration of war between them as part of the War of the Austrian Succession. A large invasion force was prepared and put to sea from Dunkirk in February 1744, only to be partly wrecked and driven back...
. While it ultimately failed, it further persuaded the British policy makers of the dangers of sending significant forces to the Americas which might be needed at home.
Although an expedition to seize
Siege of Louisbourg (1745)
The Siege of Louisbourg took place in 1745 when a New England colonial force aided by a British fleet captured Louisbourg, the capital of the French province of Île-Royale during the War of the Austrian Succession, known as King George's War in the British colonies.Although the Fortress of...
the strategic French settlement of Louisbourg was launched by New Englanders in 1745, no further attacks were attempted on Spanish possessions.
Privateering
The war involved privateering by both sides. AnsonGeorge Anson, 1st Baron Anson
Admiral of the Fleet George Anson, 1st Baron Anson PC, FRS, RN was a British admiral and a wealthy aristocrat, noted for his circumnavigation of the globe and his role overseeing the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War...
captured a valuable Manila galleon
Manila Galleon
The Manila galleons or Manila-Acapulco galleons were Spanish trading ships that sailed once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean between Manila in the Philippines, and Acapulco, New Spain . The name changed reflecting the city that the ship was sailing from...
but this was more than offset by the Spanish privateering attacks on the British transatlantic triangular trade
Triangular trade
Triangular trade, or triangle trade, is a historical term indicating among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come...
route. They seized hundreds of British ships, operating with virtual impunity in the West Indies; they were also active in European waters. The Spanish convoys
Spanish treasure fleet
The Spanish treasure fleets was a convoy system adopted by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790...
proved almost unstoppable and so, during the Austrian phase of the war, the British attacked poorly protected French merchantmen instead.
Lisbon Negotiations
From August 1746 negotiations were commenced in the neutral city of LisbonLisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
to try to arrange a peace settlement. The death of Philip V of Spain
Philip V of Spain
Philip V was King of Spain from 15 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death.Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a...
had brought his son Ferdinand VI
Ferdinand VI of Spain
Ferdinand VI , called the Learnt, was King of Spain from 9 July 1746 until his death. He was the fourth son of the previous monarch Philip V and his first wife Maria Luisa of Savoy...
to the throne, and he was more willing to be concillitary over the issues of trade. However, because of their commitments to their Austrian allies, the British were unable to agree to Spanish demands for territory in Italy and talks broke down.
Aftermath
The eventual diplomatic resolution formed part of the wider settlement of the War of the Austrian Succession
War of the Austrian Succession
The War of the Austrian Succession – including King George's War in North America, the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear, and two of the three Silesian wars – involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of the House of Habsburg.The...
by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1748 ended the War of the Austrian Succession following a congress assembled at the Imperial Free City of Aachen—Aix-la-Chapelle in French—in the west of the Holy Roman Empire, on 24 April 1748...
. The issue of the Asiento
Asiento
The Asiento in the history of slavery refers to the permission given by the Spanish government to other countries to sell people as slaves to the Spanish colonies, between the years 1543 and 1834...
was not mentioned in the treaty, and it had lessened in importance to both nations. The issue was finally settled by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid
Treaty of Madrid (1750)
The Spanish–Portuguese treaty of 1750 or Treaty of Madrid was a document signed by Ferdinand VI of Spain and John V of Portugal on January 13, 1750, concerning their empires and status of their territories in what is now Brazil....
in which Britain agreed to renounce its claim to the Asiento in exchange for a payment of £100,000 and allowed British trade with Spanish America under favourable conditions.
Relations between Britain and Spain dramatically improved during subsequent years thanks to a concerted effort by the Duke of Newcastle to cultivate Spain as an ally, and a wish by the Spanish government not to be seen as a puppet of France. A succession of Anglophile ministers were appointed in Spain including José de Carvajal and Ricardo Wall — all of whom were on good terms with the British Ambassador Benjamin Keene
Benjamin Keene
200-px|thumb|right|Benjamin KeeneSir Benjamin Keene was a British diplomat known for his service as British Ambassador to Spain. He strove to maintain good relations between the two countries, although he was unable to prevent the War of Jenkins' Ear breaking out in 1739 he later successfully kept...
in an effort to avoid a repeat of the War of Jenkins's Ear. One of the results of this was the Spanish decision to remain neutral during the early part of the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
.
The War of Jenkins's Ear is commemorated annually on the last Saturday in May at Wormsloe Plantation in Savannah
Savannah, Georgia
Savannah is the largest city and the county seat of Chatham County, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Established in 1733, the city of Savannah was the colonial capital of the Province of Georgia and later the first state capital of Georgia. Today Savannah is an industrial center and an important...
, Georgia.
Further reading
- Tobías Smollet (Tobias SmollettTobias SmollettTobias George Smollett was a Scottish poet and author. He was best known for his picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick Random and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle , which influenced later novelists such as Charles Dickens.-Life:Smollett was born at Dalquhurn, now part of Renton,...
), Authentic papers related to the expedition against Carthagena, by Jorge Orlando Melo in Reportaje de la historia de Colombia, Bogotá: Planeta, 1989. - The American People - sixth edition by Gary B. Nash and Julie Roy JeffreyJulie Roy JeffreyJulie Roy Jeffrey is Professor of History at Goucher College in Baltimore, Maryland. Jeffrey joined the Goucher faculty in 1972. Her scholarly interests are broad, and have focussed on the areas of gender history -- she is considered a pioneer of the history of women in the western United States...
- Victoria, Pablo (2005) El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra : de cómo Blas de Lezo, tuerto, manco y cojo, venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra "Armada Invencible" Áltera, Barcelona, Spain, ISBN 84-89779-68-6
- Quintero Saravia, Gonzalo M. (2002) Don Blas de Lezo: defensor de Cartagena de Indias Editorial Planeta Colombiana, Bogotá, Colombia, ISBN 958-42-0326-6, in Spanish
External links
- Proposals relating to the war in Georgia and Florida, 1740 - a document suggesting strategies by which General James Oglethorpe might defeat the Spanish during the War of Jenkins' Ear, from the collection of the Georgia Archives.