1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation
Encyclopedia
The 1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation was the largest escape of a group of slaves to occur in the Cherokee Nation
. The slave revolt took place on November 15, 1842, when a group of African-American slaves owned by the Cherokee
escaped and tried to reach Mexico
, where slavery had been outlawed. They were soon captured. However, at one point the escapees had killed two pursuers, for which five of them were to be later executed.
The event inspired subsequent slave rebellion
s to take place in the Indian Territory
and throughout North America. Although the 1842 slave revolt participants were captured before reaching the Mexican border, the aftermath of this revolt led Cherokee Nation slave holders to create stricter slave codes
, expel Freedmen from the territory, and found a 'rescue' (slave-catching) company to prevent further loss of slaves.
, the Cherokee had been cultivating wealth from the practice of making slaves of prisoners of war from other Indian
tribes. In the late 18th century, there were Cherokee-owned plantations set up on Cherokee Nation land in Georgia and Tennessee. In 1819, the Cherokee Nation passed slave codes that regulated slave trade; forbade intermarriage; enumerated punishment for runaway slaves; and prohibited slaves from owning private property. An example of the consequences of one slave code, passed in 1820, dictated that anyone who traded with a slave without his owner’s permission was bound to the legal owner for the property, or its value, if the property traded proved to be stolen. Another code declared that a fine of fifteen dollars was to be levied for masters who allowed slaves to buy or sell liquor.
Many economic problems of large-scale agricultural production were alleviated with the enslavement of Africans. A great number of Indian farmers had large tracts of land under cultivation and used enslaved laborers to produce surplus crops for sale and profit. Slaves worked primarily as agricultural laborers, cultivating both cotton for their master's profit and food for consumption. Some slaves were skilled laborers, such as seamstresses and blacksmiths. Affluent slave-owning Cherokees had at their disposal a portable labor force available to enhance their fortunes. Robust farms, salt mines, and trading posts were created with the security of free slave labor. By 1835, individual Cherokees owned an estimated 1,600 slaves of African heritage
(the most African slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes
).
The Cherokee brought their slaves to the West in the 1820s and 1830s, when the federal government forcibly removed the Indian peoples from the Southern states. Black slaves performed much of the physical labor involved in the removal. For example, they loaded wagons, cleared the roads, and led the teams of livestock along the way. Within five years of removal, almost three hundred Cherokee families made up an elite class in the Indian Territory. Some of their plantations had 600 to 1,000 acres; cultivating wheat, cotton, corn, hemp, and tobacco. Most also had large cattle and horse herds.
By 1860, these families had an estimated 4,600 slaves, and depended on them as farm laborers or home servants. By the time the Civil War
, more than eight thousand Africans were enslaved in the Indian Territory, where they comprised fourteen percent of the population.
In response, on November 17, the Cherokee National Council in Tahlequah
passed a resolution authorizing Cherokee Militia Captain John Drew to raise a company of one hundred Cherokee citizens to "pursue, arrest, and deliver the African Slaves to Fort Gibson." (The resolution relieved the government of the Cherokee Nation of any liability if the slaves resisted arrest and had to be killed.) The commander at Fort Gibson
loaned Drew twenty-five pounds of gunpowder for the militia. The force caught up with the slaves seven miles north of the Red River on November 28, where the tired fugitives offered no resistance. At one point during the chase, a few of the runaway slaves had killed two pursuers. These murders led to five of them later being executed.
The slave revolt inspired future slave rebellions to take place in the Indian Territory and elsewhere. By 1851, nearly 300 blacks had tried to escape from Indian Territory, most headed for Mexico or the area of the future Kansas Territory
.
and Arkansas
. There were similarities between slavery in the states and the Indian Territory. For example, enslaved Africans were considered property.
A positive economic effect of the revolt was that non-slave holding Indians were often hired to catch runaway slaves. In the past, some of these had struggled to eat, while slave-owning families flourished in a market economy driven by slave labor. These poorer Indians often became rich by providing services to the 'rescue' company in the capturing of runaway slaves. These trackers were compensated, and authorized to purchase ammunition and supplies for the expedition, at the expense of The Nation (provided that the expedition was not “unnecessarily protracted and did not incur needless expenses”).
and convert it into a system based on the manufacture of small-scale products, which were sold internally, instead of being exported. Upon the return of a runaway slave, some owners put them to work on their steamboat
s, which plied the Arkansas
, Mississippi
, and Ohio River
s.
Cherokee Nation (19th century)
The Cherokee Nation of the 19th century —an historic entity —was a legal, autonomous, tribal government in North America existing from 1794–1906. Often referred to simply as The Nation by its inhabitants, it should not be confused with what is known today as the "modern" Cherokee Nation...
. The slave revolt took place on November 15, 1842, when a group of African-American slaves owned by the Cherokee
Cherokee
The Cherokee are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States . Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family...
escaped and tried to reach Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, where slavery had been outlawed. They were soon captured. However, at one point the escapees had killed two pursuers, for which five of them were to be later executed.
The event inspired subsequent slave rebellion
Slave rebellion
A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves. Slave rebellions have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery, and are amongst the most feared events for slaveholders...
s to take place in the Indian Territory
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land set aside within the United States for the settlement of American Indians...
and throughout North America. Although the 1842 slave revolt participants were captured before reaching the Mexican border, the aftermath of this revolt led Cherokee Nation slave holders to create stricter slave codes
Slave codes
Slave codes were laws each US state, which defined the status of slaves and the rights of masters. These codes gave slave-owners absolute power over the African slaves.-Definition of "slaves":Virginia, 1650:“Act XI...
, expel Freedmen from the territory, and found a 'rescue' (slave-catching) company to prevent further loss of slaves.
Background
Prior to European contactEuropean colonization of the Americas
The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492. The first Europeans to reach the Americas were the Vikings during the 11th century, who established several colonies in Greenland and one short-lived settlement in present day Newfoundland...
, the Cherokee had been cultivating wealth from the practice of making slaves of prisoners of war from other Indian
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
tribes. In the late 18th century, there were Cherokee-owned plantations set up on Cherokee Nation land in Georgia and Tennessee. In 1819, the Cherokee Nation passed slave codes that regulated slave trade; forbade intermarriage; enumerated punishment for runaway slaves; and prohibited slaves from owning private property. An example of the consequences of one slave code, passed in 1820, dictated that anyone who traded with a slave without his owner’s permission was bound to the legal owner for the property, or its value, if the property traded proved to be stolen. Another code declared that a fine of fifteen dollars was to be levied for masters who allowed slaves to buy or sell liquor.
Many economic problems of large-scale agricultural production were alleviated with the enslavement of Africans. A great number of Indian farmers had large tracts of land under cultivation and used enslaved laborers to produce surplus crops for sale and profit. Slaves worked primarily as agricultural laborers, cultivating both cotton for their master's profit and food for consumption. Some slaves were skilled laborers, such as seamstresses and blacksmiths. Affluent slave-owning Cherokees had at their disposal a portable labor force available to enhance their fortunes. Robust farms, salt mines, and trading posts were created with the security of free slave labor. By 1835, individual Cherokees owned an estimated 1,600 slaves of African heritage
African people
African people refers to natives, inhabitants, or citizen of Africa and to people of African descent.-Etymology:Many etymological hypotheses that have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":...
(the most African slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes
Five Civilized Tribes
The Five Civilized Tribes were the five Native American nations—the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole—that were considered civilized by Anglo-European settlers during the colonial and early federal period because they adopted many of the colonists' customs and had generally good...
).
The Cherokee brought their slaves to the West in the 1820s and 1830s, when the federal government forcibly removed the Indian peoples from the Southern states. Black slaves performed much of the physical labor involved in the removal. For example, they loaded wagons, cleared the roads, and led the teams of livestock along the way. Within five years of removal, almost three hundred Cherokee families made up an elite class in the Indian Territory. Some of their plantations had 600 to 1,000 acres; cultivating wheat, cotton, corn, hemp, and tobacco. Most also had large cattle and horse herds.
By 1860, these families had an estimated 4,600 slaves, and depended on them as farm laborers or home servants. By the time the Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
, more than eight thousand Africans were enslaved in the Indian Territory, where they comprised fourteen percent of the population.
Events of the revolt
The mass escape of enslaved Africans from the Cherokee territory began on November 15, 1842. The slaves from surrounding plantations met and raided local stores for weapons, ammunition, horses, and mules. They then headed for Mexico where slavery had already been outlawed.In response, on November 17, the Cherokee National Council in Tahlequah
Tahlequah, Oklahoma
Tahlequah is a city in Cherokee County, Oklahoma, United States located at the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. It was founded as a capital of the original Cherokee Nation in 1838 to welcome those Cherokee forced west on the Trail of Tears. The city's population was 15,753 at the 2010 census. It...
passed a resolution authorizing Cherokee Militia Captain John Drew to raise a company of one hundred Cherokee citizens to "pursue, arrest, and deliver the African Slaves to Fort Gibson." (The resolution relieved the government of the Cherokee Nation of any liability if the slaves resisted arrest and had to be killed.) The commander at Fort Gibson
Fort Gibson
Fort Gibson, now located in Oklahoma and designated Fort Gibson Historical Site, guarded the American frontier in Indian Territory from 1824 until 1890...
loaned Drew twenty-five pounds of gunpowder for the militia. The force caught up with the slaves seven miles north of the Red River on November 28, where the tired fugitives offered no resistance. At one point during the chase, a few of the runaway slaves had killed two pursuers. These murders led to five of them later being executed.
The slave revolt inspired future slave rebellions to take place in the Indian Territory and elsewhere. By 1851, nearly 300 blacks had tried to escape from Indian Territory, most headed for Mexico or the area of the future Kansas Territory
Kansas Territory
The Territory of Kansas was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from May 30, 1854, until January 29, 1861, when the eastern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Kansas....
.
Economic impact
Indian slaveholders bought and sold slaves, often doing business with white slaveholders in the neighboring states of TexasTexas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
and Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...
. There were similarities between slavery in the states and the Indian Territory. For example, enslaved Africans were considered property.
A positive economic effect of the revolt was that non-slave holding Indians were often hired to catch runaway slaves. In the past, some of these had struggled to eat, while slave-owning families flourished in a market economy driven by slave labor. These poorer Indians often became rich by providing services to the 'rescue' company in the capturing of runaway slaves. These trackers were compensated, and authorized to purchase ammunition and supplies for the expedition, at the expense of The Nation (provided that the expedition was not “unnecessarily protracted and did not incur needless expenses”).
Outcome
The slave revolt had threatened the security of the labor force, and revenues. Eventually, the citizens of the Cherokee Nation had to revise the economic system of the traditional plantationPlantation
A plantation is a long artificially established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, often in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption...
and convert it into a system based on the manufacture of small-scale products, which were sold internally, instead of being exported. Upon the return of a runaway slave, some owners put them to work on their steamboat
Steamboat
A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels...
s, which plied the Arkansas
Arkansas River
The Arkansas River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River. The Arkansas generally flows to the east and southeast as it traverses the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The river's initial basin starts in the Western United States in Colorado, specifically the Arkansas...
, Mississippi
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
, and Ohio River
Ohio River
The Ohio River is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River. At the confluence, the Ohio is even bigger than the Mississippi and, thus, is hydrologically the main stream of the whole river system, including the Allegheny River further upstream...
s.
See also
- African American diaspora
- Atlantic slave tradeAtlantic slave tradeThe Atlantic slave trade, also known as the trans-atlantic slave trade, refers to the trade in slaves that took place across the Atlantic ocean from the sixteenth through to the nineteenth centuries...
Further reading
- Herbert Aptheker. Nat Turner's Slave Rebellion. New York, NY: Humanities Press, 1966.
- Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979.
- Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., The Chickasaw Freedmen: A People Without a Country. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980.
- Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.
- Murray R. Wickett, Contested Territory: Whites, Native Americans, and African Americans in Oklahoma, 1865–1907. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000.
- J. Leitch Wright, Jr., Creeks & Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986.