Abalone
Encyclopedia
Abalone from (Rumsen
) aulón, are small to very large-sized edible sea snail
s, marine
gastropod molluscs in the family
Haliotidae and the genus Haliotis. Common names for abalones also include ear-shells, sea ears, as well as muttonfish or muttonshells in Australia, ormer in Great Britain
, and venus's-ears in South Africa and in New Zealand.
The family Haliotidae contains only one genus, Haliotis. That genus contains about four to seven subgenera. The number of species recognized worldwide is about 100.
The shells
of abalones have a low and open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre
or mother-of-pearl, which in many species is highly iridescent
, giving rise to a range of strong and changeable colors, which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.
The flesh of abalones is widely considered to be a desirable food, and is consumed raw or cooked in a variety of different dishes.
The shell of abalones has a convex, rounded to oval shape, and may be highly arched or very flattened. It is generally ear shaped, presenting two to three whorls. The last whorl (known as the body whorl
) is auriform such that the shell resembles an "ear", giving rise to the common name ‘ear-shell’. It also has a series of holes near the anterior margin, that are in fact respiratory pores that are used for the escape of water from the gills. There are four to ten of them, depending on the species. Abalones have no operculum
.
The color of the shell is very variable from species to species, and may reflect the animal's diet. The iridescent nacre
that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red, through to Haliotis iris
, which shows predominantly deep blues, greens and purples.
These snails cling solidly with their broad muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as Haliotis cracherodii used to be common in the intertidal zone
. Abalones reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their fecundity
is high and increases with their size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time).
The larva
e are lecithotrophic (i.e. feed off a yolk sac). The adults are herbivorous
and feed with their rhipidoglossan radula
on macroalgae, preferring red or brown algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (Haliotis pulcherrima) to 200 mm (or even more) (Haliotis rufescens).
Approximately 1/3 of the weight of the animal is meat, 1/3 is offal, and 1/3 is shell..
. The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, off the Southern Hemisphere coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere.
However, the species of sea snail
which is known in the sea food trade as the "Chilean abalone", Concholepas concholepas
, is from another family altogether. It is not a true abalone at all, but a muricid
, or rock snail.
tiles stacked like bricks. Between the layers of shells is a clingy protein substance. When the abalone shell is struck, the tiles slide instead of shattering and the protein stretches to absorb the energy of the blow. Material scientists around the world are studying the tiled structure for insight into stronger ceramic products such as body armor.
The dust created through the grinding and cutting of abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles. An N95-rated dust respirator
, a ventilation system, and wet grinding are requirements to working abalone shell safely. The calcium carbonate dust is a respiratory irritant and the particles can penetrate into the lower respiratory tree and cause irritant bronchitis
and other respiratory irritation responses. The usual symptoms are cough and sputum production, and secondary infections can occur. If there are proteins left in the shell matrix, it is also possible that they can trigger an allergic (asthma
tic) attack. Allergic skin reactions can also occur.
Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that abalone viral ganglioneuritis, or AVG, killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone are also severe hemophiliacs as their fluids will not clot in the case of a laceration or puncture wound. Polydorid polychaetes are known as pests of abalone.
The meat of this mollusk is considered a delicacy
in certain parts of Latin America
(especially Chile
), France, New Zealand, Southeast Asia
, and East Asia
(especially in China, Japan, and Korea). In Chinese speaking regions, abalone are commonly known as bao yu
, and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. Similar to shark fin soup
or birds nest soup, it is considered a luxury item, and is traditionally reserved for special occasions such as weddings and other celebrations. However, the availability of commercially farmed abalone has allowed more common consumption of this once rare delicacy.
In Japan, live and raw abalone are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of tottsuru, a local dish from Honshū. Tottsuru is mainly enjoyed with sake.
In California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.
supplies approximately 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest. Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for blacklip
and greenlip abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies from between 138 mm for the southern end of the state and 127 mm for the northern end of the state. Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of 145 mm, except for an area around Perkin's Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is 132 mm. With a recreational abalone licence, there is a bag limit of 10 per day, and a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving
for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of New South Wales
and Western Australia
is illegal; a free-diving
catch limit of two is allowed).
Victoria
has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950's. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western with each fisher required a zone allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout style, outboard powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone prized from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and each and every piece is re-measured by the deckhand as well as removing excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002 the Victorian Industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch (TAC) reduced from 1440 tonnes to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 fishing year. This is due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus Ganglioneuritis which is fast spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.
Sport harvesting of red abalone
is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. New in 2008, the abalone card also comes with a set of 24 tags. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately. Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving
for abalone is strictly prohibited. Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay
. There is a size minimum of seven inches (178 mm) measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and 24 per year. A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.
Abalone may only be taken from April to November, not including July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken; black
, white
, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law.
An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick wetsuit
, including a hood, booties, and gloves, and usually also a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to 10 m (33 ft); less common are freedivers who can work deeper than 10 m (33 ft). Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources (kelp). An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down. Divers dive out of boats, kayak
s, tube floats or directly off the shore.
There has been a trade in diving to catch abalones off parts of the United States coast from before 1939.
The largest abalone recorded in California is 12.34 inches, caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of Humboldt county in September 1993.
), this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry of Fisheries officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police. Pāua 'poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases, imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1,000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being undersized.
Highly polished New Zealand pāua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue, green, and purple iridescence.
.
For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone (perlemoen), but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates.
In 2007, because of widespread poaching
of abalone, the South African government listed perlemoen as an endangered species according to the CITES section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however.
The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per metric tonne. There is, however, speculation that local criminal gangs barter abalone illegally with Chinese nationals in exchange for chemicals used in the production of drugs, reducing the need for the use of money and hence avoiding money laundering difficulties.
) are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands
and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from January 1 to April 30, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 80 mm in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison. The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.
The mollusc Concholepas concholepas
is often sold in the United States under the name "Chilean abalone", though it is not an abalone, but a muricid
.
Abalone pearl jewelry is very popular in New Zealand and Australia, in no minor part due to the marketing and farming efforts of pearl companies. Unlike the Oriental Natural, the Akoya pearl, and the South Sea and Tahitian cultured pearls, abalone pearls are not primarily judged by their roundness. Also, unlike other types of pearls, abalone pearls are not subjected to any type of processing, such as bleaching or buffing.
Species in genus Haliotis include:
Rumsen
Rumsen is one of eight language divisions of the Ohlone Native American people of Northern California...
) aulón, are small to very large-sized edible sea snail
Sea snail
Sea snail is a common name for those snails that normally live in saltwater, marine gastropod molluscs....
s, marine
Marine (ocean)
Marine is an umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the sea or ocean, such as marine biology, marine ecology and marine geology...
gastropod molluscs in the family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Haliotidae and the genus Haliotis. Common names for abalones also include ear-shells, sea ears, as well as muttonfish or muttonshells in Australia, ormer in Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
, and venus's-ears in South Africa and in New Zealand.
The family Haliotidae contains only one genus, Haliotis. That genus contains about four to seven subgenera. The number of species recognized worldwide is about 100.
The shells
Gastropod shell
The gastropod shell is a shell which is part of the body of a gastropod or snail, one kind of mollusc. The gastropod shell is an external skeleton or exoskeleton, which serves not only for muscle attachment, but also for protection from predators and from mechanical damage...
of abalones have a low and open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre
Nacre
Nacre , also known as mother of pearl, is an organic-inorganic composite material produced by some mollusks as an inner shell layer; it is also what makes up pearls. It is very strong, resilient, and iridescent....
or mother-of-pearl, which in many species is highly iridescent
Iridescence
Iridescence is generally known as the property of certain surfaces which appear to change color as the angle of view or the angle of illumination changes...
, giving rise to a range of strong and changeable colors, which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.
The flesh of abalones is widely considered to be a desirable food, and is consumed raw or cooked in a variety of different dishes.
Description
Body whorl
Body whorl is part of the morphology of a coiled gastropod mollusk.- In gastropods :In gastropods, the body whorl, or last whorl, is the most recently-formed and largest whorl of a spiral or helical shell, terminating in the aperture...
) is auriform such that the shell resembles an "ear", giving rise to the common name ‘ear-shell’. It also has a series of holes near the anterior margin, that are in fact respiratory pores that are used for the escape of water from the gills. There are four to ten of them, depending on the species. Abalones have no operculum
Operculum (gastropod)
The operculum, meaning little lid, is a corneous or calcareous anatomical structure which exists in many groups of sea snails and freshwater snails, and also in a few groups of land snails...
.
The color of the shell is very variable from species to species, and may reflect the animal's diet. The iridescent nacre
Nacre
Nacre , also known as mother of pearl, is an organic-inorganic composite material produced by some mollusks as an inner shell layer; it is also what makes up pearls. It is very strong, resilient, and iridescent....
that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red, through to Haliotis iris
Paua
Pāua is the Māori name given to three species of large edible sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs which belong to the family Haliotidae , known in the United States and Australia as abalone, and in the United Kingdom as ormer shells.-Species:There are three species of New Zealand pāua:New...
, which shows predominantly deep blues, greens and purples.
These snails cling solidly with their broad muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as Haliotis cracherodii used to be common in the intertidal zone
Intertidal zone
The intertidal zone is the area that is above water at low tide and under water at high tide . This area can include many different types of habitats, with many types of animals like starfish, sea urchins, and some species of coral...
. Abalones reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their fecundity
Fecundity
Fecundity, derived from the word fecund, generally refers to the ability to reproduce. In demography, fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population. In biology, the definition is more equivalent to fertility, or the actual reproductive rate of an organism or...
is high and increases with their size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time).
The larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e are lecithotrophic (i.e. feed off a yolk sac). The adults are herbivorous
Herbivore
Herbivores are organisms that are anatomically and physiologically adapted to eat plant-based foods. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in...
and feed with their rhipidoglossan radula
Radula
The radula is an anatomical structure that is used by molluscs for feeding, sometimes compared rather inaccurately to a tongue. It is a minutely toothed, chitinous ribbon, which is typically used for scraping or cutting food before the food enters the esophagus...
on macroalgae, preferring red or brown algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (Haliotis pulcherrima) to 200 mm (or even more) (Haliotis rufescens).
Approximately 1/3 of the weight of the animal is meat, 1/3 is offal, and 1/3 is shell..
Distribution
The haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Atlantic coast of South America, the Caribbean, and the East Coast of the United StatesEast Coast of the United States
The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, refers to the easternmost coastal states in the United States, which touch the Atlantic Ocean and stretch up to Canada. The term includes the U.S...
. The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, off the Southern Hemisphere coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere.
However, the species of sea snail
Sea snail
Sea snail is a common name for those snails that normally live in saltwater, marine gastropod molluscs....
which is known in the sea food trade as the "Chilean abalone", Concholepas concholepas
Concholepas concholepas
Concholepas concholepas, common names the Chilean abalone, loco or pata de burro and chanque , is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk. Despite the superficial resemblance, C...
, is from another family altogether. It is not a true abalone at all, but a muricid
Muricidae
Muricidae, common name murex snails or rock snails, is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails. With approximately 1,600 living species the Muricidae represent almost 10% of the Neogastropoda. Additionally, 1,200 fossil species have been recognised...
, or rock snail.
Structure and properties of abalone shell
The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong and is made of microscopic calcium carbonateCalcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, coal balls, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime,...
tiles stacked like bricks. Between the layers of shells is a clingy protein substance. When the abalone shell is struck, the tiles slide instead of shattering and the protein stretches to absorb the energy of the blow. Material scientists around the world are studying the tiled structure for insight into stronger ceramic products such as body armor.
The dust created through the grinding and cutting of abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles. An N95-rated dust respirator
Respirator
A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful dusts, fumes, vapors, or gases. Respirators come in a wide range of types and sizes used by the military, private industry, and the public...
, a ventilation system, and wet grinding are requirements to working abalone shell safely. The calcium carbonate dust is a respiratory irritant and the particles can penetrate into the lower respiratory tree and cause irritant bronchitis
Bronchitis
Acute bronchitis is an inflammation of the large bronchi in the lungs that is usually caused by viruses or bacteria and may last several days or weeks. Characteristic symptoms include cough, sputum production, and shortness of breath and wheezing related to the obstruction of the inflamed airways...
and other respiratory irritation responses. The usual symptoms are cough and sputum production, and secondary infections can occur. If there are proteins left in the shell matrix, it is also possible that they can trigger an allergic (asthma
Asthma
Asthma is the common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm. Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath...
tic) attack. Allergic skin reactions can also occur.
Diseases and pests
Abalones are subject to various diseases. The New South WalesNew South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that abalone viral ganglioneuritis, or AVG, killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone are also severe hemophiliacs as their fluids will not clot in the case of a laceration or puncture wound. Polydorid polychaetes are known as pests of abalone.
Human use
The meat (foot muscle) of abalone is used for food, and the shells of abalone are used as decorative items and as a source of mother of pearl for jewelry and other decorative itemsFarming
Farming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption. Over-fishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Hawaii, Canada, Chile, France, Iceland, Ireland, Mexico, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand, and the United States.Consumption
Abalone have long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is abundant.The meat of this mollusk is considered a delicacy
Delicacy
A delicacy is a food item that is considered highly desirable in certain cultures. Often this is because of unusual flavors or characteristics or because it is rare....
in certain parts of Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
(especially Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
), France, New Zealand, Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
, and East Asia
East Asia
East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
(especially in China, Japan, and Korea). In Chinese speaking regions, abalone are commonly known as bao yu
Bao yu
Baoyu is the common Chinese name given to abalone and also the dried seafood product produced from the adductor muscle of abalone. In dried form, it is a highly prized and expensive ingredient used in Chinese cuisine...
, and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. Similar to shark fin soup
Shark fin soup
Shark fin soup is a popular soup item of Chinese cuisine usually served at special occasions such as weddings and banquets, or as a luxury item in Chinese culture. The shark fins provide texture while the taste comes from the other soup ingredients.There is controversy over the practice of shark...
or birds nest soup, it is considered a luxury item, and is traditionally reserved for special occasions such as weddings and other celebrations. However, the availability of commercially farmed abalone has allowed more common consumption of this once rare delicacy.
In Japan, live and raw abalone are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of tottsuru, a local dish from Honshū. Tottsuru is mainly enjoyed with sake.
In California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.
Australia
TasmaniaTasmania
Tasmania is an Australian island and state. It is south of the continent, separated by Bass Strait. The state includes the island of Tasmania—the 26th largest island in the world—and the surrounding islands. The state has a population of 507,626 , of whom almost half reside in the greater Hobart...
supplies approximately 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest. Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for blacklip
Haliotis rubra
Haliotis rubra, common name the blacklip abalone, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
and greenlip abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies from between 138 mm for the southern end of the state and 127 mm for the northern end of the state. Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of 145 mm, except for an area around Perkin's Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is 132 mm. With a recreational abalone licence, there is a bag limit of 10 per day, and a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving
Scuba diving
Scuba diving is a form of underwater diving in which a diver uses a scuba set to breathe underwater....
for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
and Western Australia
Western Australia
Western Australia is a state of Australia, occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Indian Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east and South Australia to the south-east...
is illegal; a free-diving
Free-diving
Freediving is any of various aquatic activities that share the practice of breath-hold underwater diving. Examples include breathhold spear fishing, freedive photography, apnea competitions and, to a degree, snorkeling...
catch limit of two is allowed).
Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950's. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western with each fisher required a zone allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout style, outboard powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone prized from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and each and every piece is re-measured by the deckhand as well as removing excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002 the Victorian Industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch (TAC) reduced from 1440 tonnes to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 fishing year. This is due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus Ganglioneuritis which is fast spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.
United States
Red abalone
The red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, is a species of very large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones, ormer shells or paua....
is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. New in 2008, the abalone card also comes with a set of 24 tags. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately. Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving
Scuba diving
Scuba diving is a form of underwater diving in which a diver uses a scuba set to breathe underwater....
for abalone is strictly prohibited. Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay
San Francisco Bay
San Francisco Bay is a shallow, productive estuary through which water draining from approximately forty percent of California, flowing in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers from the Sierra Nevada mountains, enters the Pacific Ocean...
. There is a size minimum of seven inches (178 mm) measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and 24 per year. A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.
Abalone may only be taken from April to November, not including July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken; black
Black Abalone
The black abalone, Haliotis cracherodii, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
, white
White abalone
The White abalone, scientific name Haliotis sorenseni, is a species of large, edible, sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law.
An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick wetsuit
Wetsuit
A wetsuit is a garment, usually made of foamed neoprene, which is worn by surfers, divers, windsurfers, canoeists, and others engaged in water sports, providing thermal insulation, abrasion resistance and buoyancy. The insulation properties depend on bubbles of gas enclosed within the material,...
, including a hood, booties, and gloves, and usually also a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to 10 m (33 ft); less common are freedivers who can work deeper than 10 m (33 ft). Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources (kelp). An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down. Divers dive out of boats, kayak
Kayak
A kayak is a small, relatively narrow, human-powered boat primarily designed to be manually propelled by means of a double blade paddle.The traditional kayak has a covered deck and one or more cockpits, each seating one paddler...
s, tube floats or directly off the shore.
There has been a trade in diving to catch abalones off parts of the United States coast from before 1939.
The largest abalone recorded in California is 12.34 inches, caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of Humboldt county in September 1993.
New Zealand
There is an extensive global black market in the collection and export of abalone meat. In New Zealand, where abalone is called pāua (from the Māori languageMaori language
Māori or te reo Māori , commonly te reo , is the language of the indigenous population of New Zealand, the Māori. It has the status of an official language in New Zealand...
), this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry of Fisheries officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police. Pāua 'poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases, imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1,000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being undersized.
Highly polished New Zealand pāua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue, green, and purple iridescence.
South Africa
The largest abalone in South Africa, the perlemoen, Haliotis midae, occurs along approximately two-thirds of the country’s coastline. Perlemoen-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting. In South Africa all persons harvesting this animal need permits that are issued on a yearly basis, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gearScuba set
A scuba set is an independent breathing set that provides a scuba diver with the breathing gas necessary to breathe underwater during scuba diving. It is much used for sport diving and some sorts of work diving....
.
For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone (perlemoen), but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates.
In 2007, because of widespread poaching
Poaching
Poaching is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws. Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as poaching.It may be illegal and in...
of abalone, the South African government listed perlemoen as an endangered species according to the CITES section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however.
The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per metric tonne. There is, however, speculation that local criminal gangs barter abalone illegally with Chinese nationals in exchange for chemicals used in the production of drugs, reducing the need for the use of money and hence avoiding money laundering difficulties.
Channel Islands
Ormers (Haliotis tuberculataGreen ormer
The green ormer, scientific name Haliotis tuberculata, is a species of edible sea snail, a coastal marine gastropod mollusc in the family Haliotidae, the abalones or ormer snails....
) are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands are an archipelago of British Crown Dependencies in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two separate bailiwicks: the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey...
and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from January 1 to April 30, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 80 mm in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison. The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.
The mollusc Concholepas concholepas
Concholepas concholepas
Concholepas concholepas, common names the Chilean abalone, loco or pata de burro and chanque , is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk. Despite the superficial resemblance, C...
is often sold in the United States under the name "Chilean abalone", though it is not an abalone, but a muricid
Muricidae
Muricidae, common name murex snails or rock snails, is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails. With approximately 1,600 living species the Muricidae represent almost 10% of the Neogastropoda. Additionally, 1,200 fossil species have been recognised...
.
Decorative items
The highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item, in jewelry, buttons, and as inlay in furniture and in musical instruments such as guitars, etc.Abalone pearl jewelry is very popular in New Zealand and Australia, in no minor part due to the marketing and farming efforts of pearl companies. Unlike the Oriental Natural, the Akoya pearl, and the South Sea and Tahitian cultured pearls, abalone pearls are not primarily judged by their roundness. Also, unlike other types of pearls, abalone pearls are not subjected to any type of processing, such as bleaching or buffing.
Species
- Haliotis alfredensisHaliotis alfredensisHaliotis alfredensis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Reeve, 1846- the Alfred's abalone – synonym: Haliotis speciosa Reeve, 1846, the splendid abalone - Haliotis asinina Linnaeus, 1758 – the ass’s ear abalone
- Haliotis australisHaliotis australisHaliotis australis, common name the "queen paua", is a species of edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones. It is endemic to New Zealand.- Human use :...
Gmelin, 1791 – the Austral abalone - Haliotis brazieriHaliotis brazieriHaliotis brazieri is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Angas, 1869 – Brazier’s abalone – synonym: Haliotis melculus, the honey abalone- Haliotis brazieri f. hargravesi (Cox, 1869) – synonym: Haliotis ethologus, the Mimic abalone, Haliotis hargravesi, the Hargraves’s abalone
- Haliotis clathrataHaliotis clathrataHaliotis clathrata is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.This species also occurs in a different form: Haliotis clathrata f...
Reeve, 1846 - Haliotis coccoradiataHaliotis coccoradiataHaliotis coccoradiata is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.-External links:*...
Reeve, 1846 – the reddish-rayed abalone - Haliotis corrugataHaliotis corrugataThe Pink abalone, scientific name Haliotis corrugata, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.- Subspecies :...
Wood, 1828 – the pink abalone - Haliotis cracherodii Leach, 1814 – the black abalone
- Haliotis cracherodii californiensis
- Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii
- Haliotis cyclobatesHaliotis cyclobatesHaliotis cyclobates is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Péron, 1816 – the whirling abalone - Haliotis dalliHaliotis dalliHaliotis dalli is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Henderson, 1915 – the Dall’s abalone- Haliotis dalli dalli Henderson, 1915
- Haliotis dalli roberti McLean, 1970 – synonym: Haliotis roberti
- Haliotis discusHaliotis discusHaliotis discus is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Reeve, 1846 – the disk abalone- Haliotis discus discus Reeve, 1846
- Haliotis discus hannai Ino, 1953
- Haliotis dissonaHaliotis dissonaHaliotis dissona is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
(Iredale, 1929) - Haliotis diversicolorHaliotis diversicolorHaliotis diversicolor is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.- Subspecies :* Haliotis diversicolor diversicolor Reeve, 1846* Haliotis diversicolor squamata Reeve, 1846...
– the variously coloured abalone – synonym: Haliotis aquatilis, the Japanese abalone- Haliotis diversicolor diversicolor Reeve, 1846
- Haliotis diversicolor squamata Reeve, 1846 – synonym: Haliotis squamata – the scaly Australian abalone
- Haliotis diversicolor supertexta – the Taiwan abalone or jiukong
- Haliotis dringiHaliotis dringiHaliotis dringi is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
- Haliotis elegansHaliotis elegansHaliotis elegans is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Philippi, 1844 - Haliotis emmae – the Emma’s abalone
- Haliotis exigua
- Haliotis fatuiHaliotis fatuiHaliotis fatui is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Geiger, 1999 - Haliotis fulgensHaliotis fulgensHaliotis fulgens is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
– the green abalone- Haliotis fulgens fulgens Philippi, 1845
- Haliotis fulgens guadalupensis Talmadge, 1964
- Haliotis fulgens turveri Bartsch, 1942
- Haliotis giganteaHaliotis giganteaHaliotis gigantea is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones. It is known as Siebold's Abalone, after Philipp Franz von Siebold....
Gmelin, 1791 – the giant abalone, Awabi - Haliotis glabraHaliotis glabraHaliotis glabra is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Gmelin, 1791 – the glistening abalone - Haliotis irisHaliotis irisHaliotis iris, common name paua or blackfoot paua, is a species of edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones. It is endemic to New Zealand.- Description :...
Gmelin, 1791 – the blackfoot abalone, rainbow abalone, or PāuaPauaPāua is the Māori name given to three species of large edible sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs which belong to the family Haliotidae , known in the United States and Australia as abalone, and in the United Kingdom as ormer shells.-Species:There are three species of New Zealand pāua:New... - Haliotis jacnensisHaliotis jacnensisHaliotis jacnensis, common name : the Jacna abalone, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.-Description:The shell size varies between 7 mm and 25 mm-References:...
Reeve, 1846 – the Jacna abalone - Haliotis kamtschatkana – the pinto abalone or northern abalone
- Haliotis kamtschatkana assimilis Dall, 1878 – synonym: Haliotis assimilis, the threaded abalone
- Haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana Jonas, 1845
- Haliotis laevigata Donovan, 1808 – the Smooth Australian abalone or greenlip abalone
- Haliotis madakaHaliotis madakaHaliotis madaka is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
(Habe, 1977) - Haliotis mariaeHaliotis mariaeHaliotis mariae is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Wood, 1828 - Haliotis marfaloni – the Marfalo abalone
- Haliotis midaeHaliotis midaeHaliotis midae, known commonly as the South African abalone or the perlemoen abalone, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.-External links:...
Linnaeus, 1758 – the Midas ear abalone, perlemoen abalone or South African abalone - Haliotis mykonosensisHaliotis mykonosensisHaliotis mykonosensis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Owen, Hanavan & Hall, 2001 - Haliotis ovinaHaliotis ovinaHaliotis ovina is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.- Subspecies :Subspecies of Haliotis ovina include:* Haliotis ovina ovina Gmelin, 1791...
Gmelin, 1791 – the sheep's ear abalone- Haliotis ovina volcanius Patamakanthin & Eng, 2007
- Haliotis ovina f. patamakanthini Dekker, Regter, & Gras, 2001 – synonym: Haliotis patamakanthini
- Haliotis parva Linnaeus, 1758 – the canaliculate abalone
- Haliotis planataHaliotis planataHaliotis planata is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
– the planate abalone - Haliotis pourtalesiiHaliotis pourtalesiiHaliotis pourtalesii, common name Pourtale’s abalone, is a species of rare deepwater sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones...
Dall, 1881 – the Pourtale’s abalone- Haliotis pourtalesii aurantiumHaliotis pourtalesii aurantiumHaliotis pourtalesii aurantium is a subspecies of edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones. This is a Western Atlantic species....
Simone, 1998 - Haliotis pourtalesii pourtalesii Dall, 1881
- Haliotis pourtalesii aurantium
- Haliotis pulcherrimaHaliotis pulcherrimaHaliotis pulcherrima is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Gmelin, 1791 – the most beautiful abalone - Haliotis pustulataHaliotis pustulataHaliotis pustulata is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Reeve, 1846 - Haliotis quekettiHaliotis quekettiHaliotis queketti is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
E.A. Smith, 1910 – the Quekett’s abalone - Haliotis roeiHaliotis roeiHaliotis roei is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Gray, 1826 – the Roe's abalone - Haliotis rubiginosaHaliotis rubiginosaHaliotis rubiginosa is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Reeve, 1846 – synonym: Haliotis howensis, the Lord Howe abalone - Haliotis rubraHaliotis rubraHaliotis rubra, common name the blacklip abalone, is a species of large edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Leach, 1814 – the ruber abalone- Haliotis rubra conicopora Péron, 1816 – synonym: Haliotis conicopora – the conical pore abalone
- Haliotis rubra rubra Leach, 1814 – synonym: Haliotis ancile the shield abalone
- Haliotis rufescens Swainson, 1822 – the red abalone
- Haliotis rugosaHaliotis rugosaHaliotis rugosa is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Lamarck, 1822 – synonym: Haliotis multiperforata, the many-holed abalone - Haliotis scalarisHaliotis scalarisHaliotis scalaris is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
(Leach, 1814) – the staircase abalone or ridged ear abalone- Haliotis scalaris emmae Reeve, 1846
- Haliotis scalaris scalaris (Leach, 1814)
- Haliotis semiplicataHaliotis semiplicataHaliotis semiplicata is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Menke, 1843 – the semiplicate abalone - Haliotis sorenseniBatsch, 1940 – the white abalone
- Haliotis spadicea Donovan, 1808 – the Blood-spotted abalone
- Haliotis squamosaHaliotis squamosaHaliotis squamosa is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Gray, 1826 – the squamose abalone - Haliotis stomatiaeformisHaliotis stomatiaeformisHaliotis stomatiaeformis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.-References:* Geiger D.L. & Poppe G.T. . A Conchological Iconography: The family Haliotidae. Conchbooks, Hackenheim Germany. 135pp 83pls....
Reeve, 1846 - Haliotis supertextaHaliotis supertextaHaliotis supertexta is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Lischke, 1870 - Haliotis thailandisHaliotis thailandisHaliotis thailandis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.-Distribution:This species has been found in the Andaman Sea and the seas around the Philippines -References:...
Dekker & Pakamanthin, 2001 - Haliotis tuberculata Linnaeus, 1758 – the green ormer, European edible abalone, tube abalone, or tuberculate ormer – synonyms: Haliotis varia, Variable abalone, Haliotis barbouri
- Haliotis tuberculata coccinea Reeve, 1846
- Haliotis tuberculata f. lamellosa Lamarck, 1822
- Haliotis tuberculata fernandesi Owen, Grace, & Afonso
- Haliotis tuberculata marmorata Linnaeus, 1758 – synonyms: Haliotis virginea – the Virgin abalone, Haliotis rosacea, the rosy abalone
- Haliotis tuberculata tuberculata Linnaeus, 1758
- Haliotis unilateralisHaliotis unilateralisHaliotis unilateralis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.-Distribution:...
Lamarck, 1822 - Haliotis varia Linnaeus, 1758
- Haliotis varia f. dohrniana Dunker, 1863 – synonym: Haliotis dohrniana Dunker, 1863
- Haliotis varia f. planata G.B. Sowerby II, 1882
- Haliotis virgineaHaliotis virgineaHaliotis virginea, Virgin Paua, is a species of edible sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones.- Human use :...
Gmelin, 1791- Haliotis virginea crispata Gould, 1847
- Haliotis virginea huttoni Filhol, 1880
- Haliotis virginea morioria Powell, 1938
- Haliotis virginea stewartae Jones & Owen, 2004
- Haliotis virginea virginea Gmelin, 1791
- Haliotis walallensisHaliotis walallensisHaliotis walallensis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Haliotidae, the abalones....
Stearns, 1899 – the northern green abalone or flat abalone – synonym: Haliotis fulgens var. walallensis Stearns, 1899
External links
- Abalone: Species Diversity
- ABMAP: The Abalone Mapping Project
- Abalone biology
- Conchology
- Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods : Shell Catalog
- book on crafting with Abalone Shell
- Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution
- Oman’s Abalone Harvest
- http://www.thejohnharding.com/archives/00001521.htm Pro abalone diver, Mallacoota, Victoria (1967)
- http://www.thejohnharding.com/archives/00000954.htm Tathra NSW(1961), Abalone (1963)