Acculturation
Encyclopedia
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the requirements of the culture by which he or she is surrounded, and acquires values and behaviours that are appropriate or necessary in that culture. As part of this process, the influences which limit, direct, or shape the individual include...
is used to describe the process of first-culture learning, acculturation can be thought of as second-culture learning.
The concept of acculturation has been studied scientifically since 1918. As it has been approached at different times from the fields of psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, anthropology
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
, and sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, numerous theories and definitions have emerged to describe elements of the acculturative process. Despite definitions and evidence that acculturation entails a two-way process of change, research and theory have primarily focused on the adjustments and adaptations made by minorities such as immigrants, refugees, and indigenous peoples in response to their contact with the dominant majority. Contemporary research has primarily focused on different strategies of acculturation and how variations in acculturation affect how well individuals adapt to their society.
Historical approaches
The earliest recorded thoughts towards acculturation can be found in Sumerian inscriptions from 2370 B.C. These inscriptions laid out rules for commerce and interaction with foreigners intended to limit acculturation and protect traditional cultural practices. PlatoPlato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
also said that acculturation should be avoided as he thought it leads to social disorder. Accordingly, he proposed that no one should travel abroad until they are at least 40 years of age, and that travellers should be restricted to the ports of cities to minimize contact with native citizens. Nevertheless, the history Western civilization, in particular the histories of Europe and the United States are largely defined by patterns of acculturation.
J.W. Powell is credited with coining the word "acculturation" in 1880, defining it as “the psychological changes induced by cross-cultural imitation.” The first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki
Florian Znaniecki
Florian Witold Znaniecki was a Polish sociologist. He taught and wrote in Poland and the United States. He was the 44th President of the American Sociological Association and the founder of academic sociology studies in Poland...
’s 1918 study, “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America.” From studying Polish immigrants in Chicago, they illustrated three forms of acculturation corresponding to three personality types: Bohemian (adopting the host culture and abandoning their culture of origin), Philistine (failing to adopt the host culture but preserving their culture of origin), and Creative-Type (able to adapt to the host culture while preserving their culture of orgin). In 1936, Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits provided the first widely used definition of acculturation as “those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups…under this definition acculturation is to be distinguished from…assimilation, which is at times a phase of acculturation Since then scholars in different disciplines have developed more than 100 different theories of acculturation.
Conceptual Models of Acculturation
Although numerous models of acculturation exist, the most complete models take into consideration the changes occurring at the group and individual level of both interacting groups. To understand acculturation at the group level, one must first look at the nature of both cultures before coming into contact with one another. Then, taking into consideration the nature of the contact, one must look at how acculturation results in changes to the culture of both groups. At the individual level, elements of both the original cultures and the changed cultures must be taken into consideration when considering an individual’s psychological acculturation. Psychological acculturation concerns the behavioral shifts and experienced thoughts, feelings, and stress associated with cultural change. Differences in psychological acculturation then affect how well individuals adapt to their new cultural environment, leading to both psychological and sociocultural outcomes such as experiencing low self-esteem or acquiring a new language.Fourfold Models
Meta-analyses of research on acculturation have shown pronounced disagreement in the categorization of different strategies of acculturation. However, the majority of these models have divided the ways in which individuals approach acculturation into four categories.The fourfold model categorizes acculturation strategies along two dimensions. The first dimension concerns retention or rejection of an individual’s minority or native culture (i.e. “Is it considered to be of value to maintain one’s identity and characteristics?”). The second dimension concerns adoption or rejection of the dominant group or host culture (i.e. “Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with the larger society?”) From this, four permutations emerge.
1. Assimilation
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
– Assimilation occurs when individuals reject their minority culture and adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture.
2. Separation – Separation occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves.
3. Integration
Racial integration
Racial integration, or simply integration includes desegregation . In addition to desegregation, integration includes goals such as leveling barriers to association, creating equal opportunity regardless of race, and the development of a culture that draws on diverse traditions, rather than merely...
– Integration occurs when individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin. Integration often results in biculturalism
Biculturalism
Biculturalism in sociology involves two originally distinct cultures in some form of co-existence.A policy recognizing, fostering or encouraging biculturalism typically emerges in countries that have emerged from a history of national or ethnic conflict in which neither side has gained complete...
.
4. Marginalization
Marginalization
In sociology, marginalisation , or marginalization , is the social process of becoming or being made marginal or relegated to the fringe of society e.g.; "the marginalization of the underclass", "marginalisation of intellect", etc.-Individual:Marginalization at the individual level results in an...
– Marginalization occurs when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host culture.
The fourfold models used to describe the attitudes of immigrant groups parallel models used to describe the expectations of the larger society of how groups should acculturate. In a melting pot
Melting pot
The melting pot is a metaphor for a heterogeneous society becoming more homogeneous, the different elements "melting together" into a harmonious whole with a common culture...
society, in which a harmonious and homogenous culture is promoted, assimilation is the endorsed acculturation strategy. In segregationist
Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home...
society, in which humans are separated into racial groups in daily life, a separation acculturation strategy is endorsed. In a multiculturalist
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
society, in which multiple cultures are accepted and appreciated, individuals are encouraged to adopt an integrationist approach to acculturation. In societies where cultural exclusion is promoted, individuals often adopt marginalization strategies of acculturation.
It should also be noted that most individuals show variation in both their ideal and chosen acculturation strategies across different aspects of their lives. For example, it is often easier and more desired among immigrating individuals to acculturate to their host societies attitudes towards politics and government, than it is to acculturate to new attitudes about religion, principles, and values.
Individual health
A great deal of public health research has used acculturation as a predictor of numerous health outcomes, primarily among immigrant groups. Acculturation is thought to impact health by impacting levels of stress, access to health resources, and attitudes towards health. Among U.S. LatinosHispanic and Latino Americans
Hispanic or Latino Americans are Americans with origins in the Hispanic countries of Latin America or in Spain, and in general all persons in the United States who self-identify as Hispanic or Latino.1990 Census of Population and Housing: A self-designated classification for people whose origins...
, high levels of acculturation has been associated with negative effects on health behaviors and outcomes, but positive effects on health care use and access. The effects of acculturation on physical health is thought to be a major factor in the Immigrant Paradox
Hispanic Paradox
The Hispanic Paradox, or Latino Paradox, also known as the "Epidemiologic Paradox," refers to the epidemiological finding that Hispanic and Latino Americans tend to have health outcomes that paradoxically are comparable to, or in some cases better than, those of their U.S. white counterparts, even...
, the finding that first generation immigrants tend to have better health outcomes than members of the host culture, and that these differences decrease over generations.
One prominent explanation for the negative health behaviors and outcomes (e.g. substance use, low birth weight) associated with high levels of acculturation is the acculturative stress theory. Acculturative stress refers to the psychological, somatic, and social difficulties that may accompany acculturation processes, often manifesting in anxiety, depression and other forms of mental and physical maladaptation. Stress caused by acculturation has been document in phenomenological research on the acculturation of adolescent female Mexican immigrants. This research has shown that acculturation is a “fatiguing experience requiring a constant stream of bodily energy”, an “individual and familial endeavor”, and involvd “enduring loneliness caused by seemingly insurmountable language barriers”. However, the same individuals also report “finding relief and protection in relationships” and “feeling worse and then feeling better about oneself with increased competencies” during the acculturative process.
Culture
In situations of continuous contact, cultures have exchanged and blended foods, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies. Cultural exchange can either occur naturally through extended contact or deliberately though cultural appropriationCultural appropriation
Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group. It describes acculturation or assimilation, but can imply a negative view towards acculturation from a minority culture by a dominant culture. It can include the introduction of forms of...
or cultural imperialism
Cultural imperialism
Cultural imperialism is the domination of one culture over another. Cultural imperialism can take the form of a general attitude or an active, formal and deliberate policy, including military action. Economic or technological factors may also play a role...
.
Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group. It can include the introduction of forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or behavior. These elements are typically imported into the existing culture, and may have wildly different meanings or lack the subtleties of their original cultural context. Because of this, cultural appropriation is sometimes viewed negatively, and has been called "cultural theft."
Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another, usually occurring in situations in which assimilation is the dominant strategy of acculturation. Cultural imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude regarding cultural superiority.
Language
The transactional nature of acculturation is particularly notable in the evolution of languages. In some instances, acculturation results in the adoption of another country’s language, which is then modified over time to become a new, distinct, language. For example, Hanzi, the written language of Chinese language, has been adapted and modified by other nearby cultures, including: JapanJapan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
(as Kanji
Kanji
Kanji are the adopted logographic Chinese characters hanzi that are used in the modern Japanese writing system along with hiragana , katakana , Indo Arabic numerals, and the occasional use of the Latin alphabet...
), Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
(as Hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
), and Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
(as Chữ-nôm). Another common effect of acculturation on language is the formation of pidgin languages. Pidgin
Pidgin
A pidgin , or pidgin language, is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. It is most commonly employed in situations such as trade, or where both groups speak languages different from the language of the...
is a mixed language that has developed to help communication between members of different cultures in contact, usually occurring in situations of trade or colonialism. For example, Pidgin English
Pidgin English
Pidgin English is a non-specific name used to refer to any of the many pidgin languages derived from English. English-based pidgins include:*American Indian Pidgin English*Bislama...
is a simplified form of English mixed with some of the other language of the other culture. It blends English grammar with that of a native language. This was first used in Chinese ports and similar have developed in Papua New Guinea and West Africa.
Definitions
Some anthropologists make a semantic distinction between group and individual levels of acculturation. In these instances, the term “transculturationTransculturation
Transculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1940 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures....
” is used to define individual foreign-origin acculturation, and occurs on a smaller scale with less visible impact. Scholars making this distinction use the term “acculturation” only to address large-scale cultural transactions.
Recommended Models of Acculturation
From the vast catalog of theories on acculturation, many different prescriptions have emerged for the most adaptive form of acculturation. When asking individuals about their preferred acculturation strategy, there is an almost universal preference for integration and dislike of marginalization. In general, most research seems to indicate that the integrationist model of acculturation will lead to the most favorable psychosocial outcomes However, meta-analysisMeta-analysis
In statistics, a meta-analysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses. In its simplest form, this is normally by identification of a common measure of effect size, for which a weighted average might be the output of a meta-analyses. Here the...
has shown these results to be unclear. Factors such as how different the two interacting cultures are, and how easily individuals can integrate these two cultures (bicultural identity integration
Bicultural identity integration
In personality psychology, bicultural identity integration is the degree to which a bicultural person perceives both their cultural identities as "compatible" versus "oppositional".-Further reading:* . Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology....
) may partially explain why general statements about approaches to acculturation are not sufficient in predicting successful adaptation.
Typological Approach
Several theorists have stated that the Fourfold models of acculturation are too simplistic to have predictive validity. Some common criticisms of such models include the fact individuals don’t often fall neatly into any of the categories, and there are hardly evidence for the use of the marginalization acculturation strategy. For immigrants, the degree to which heritage practices, language, and values differ from those of the host culture, play an important but underappreciated role in the adoption and outcome of acculturation strategies. In addition, the bi-directionality of acculturation means that whenever two groups are engaged in cultural exchange, there are in fact 16 permutations of acculturation strategies possible (e.g. assimilationist host culture matched with a integrationist immigrant culture). The Interactive Acculturation ModelInteractive acculturation
The Interactive Acculturation Model seeks to integrate within a common theoretical framework the following components of immigrants and host community relations in multicultural settings: acculturation orientations adopted by immigrant groups in the host community; acculturation orientations...
represents one proposed alternative to the typological approach by attempting to explain the acculturation process within a framework of state policies and the dynamic interplay of host community and immigrant acculturation orientations.
See also
- CreolizationCreolizationCreolization is a concept that refers to the process in which new African American cultures emerge in the New World. As a result of colonization there was a mixture between people of indigenous, African, and European decent, which became to be understood as Creolization...
- Cultural assimilationCultural assimilationCultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
- EnculturationEnculturationEnculturation is the process by which a person learns the requirements of the culture by which he or she is surrounded, and acquires values and behaviours that are appropriate or necessary in that culture. As part of this process, the influences which limit, direct, or shape the individual include...
- Ethnocide
- GlobalizationGlobalizationGlobalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Most often, it refers to economics: the global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import...
- Intercultural competenceIntercultural competenceIntercultural competence is the ability of successful communication with people of other cultures.A person who is interculturally competent captures and understands, in interaction with people from foreign cultures, their specific concepts in perception, thinking, feeling and acting...
- Language shiftLanguage shiftLanguage shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, is the progressive process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of individuals with a given mother tongue who speak...
- Melting potMelting potThe melting pot is a metaphor for a heterogeneous society becoming more homogeneous, the different elements "melting together" into a harmonious whole with a common culture...
- WesternizationWesternizationWesternization or Westernisation , also occidentalization or occidentalisation , is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet,...
- Black Skin, White MasksBlack Skin, White MasksBlack Skin, White Masks is a 1952 book written by Frantz Fanon originally published in French as Peau noire, masques blancs.In this study, Fanon uses psychoanalysis and psychoanalytical theory to explain the feelings of dependency and inadequacy that Black people experience in a White world...