Activity theory
Encyclopedia
Activity theory is a psychological meta-theory, paradigm
, or theoretical framework, with its roots in Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology
. Its founders were Alexei N. Leont'ev (1903-1979), and Sergei Rubinshtein (1889–1960), who sought to understand human activities as complex, socially situated phenomena and go beyond paradigms of cognition
, psychoanalysis
and behaviorism
. It became one of the major psychological approaches in the former USSR, being widely used in both theoretical and applied psychology, in areas such as education, training, ergonomics, and work psychology.
Activity theory is particularly useful as a lens in ethnographic research. AT provides a method of understanding and analyzing a phenomenon, finding patterns and making inferences across interactions, describing phenomena and presenting phenomena through a built-in language and rhetoric. The lens of activity theory provides a number of constructs by focusing on activities as the unit of analysis, particularly activities as a goal-directed or "purposeful" interaction of a subject with an object through use of a tool. These tools are "exteriorized" forms of mental processes manifested in constructs whether physical or psychological. Activity Theory recognizes the internalization and externalization of cognitive processes involved in use of tools, as well as the transformation or development that results from the interaction.
(1896–1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902–77) and Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev (1903–79). Vygotsky founded cultural-historical psychology, an important strand in the activity approach; Leont’ev, one of the principal founders of activity theory, both continued, and reacted against, Vygotsky's work. Leont'ev's formulation of general activity theory is currently the most influential in post-Soviet developments in AT, which have largely been in social-scientific and organizational, rather than psychological research.
The second major line of development within activity theory involves scientists, such as P. K. Anokhin (1898-1974) and N. A. Bernshtein (1896-1966), more directly concerned with the neurophysiological basis of activity; its foundation is associated with the Soviet philosopher of psychology S. L. Rubinshtein (1889-1960). This work was subsequently developed by researchers such as Pushkin, Zinchenko & Gordeeva, Ponomarenko, Zarakovsky and others, as is currently most well-known through the work on systemic-structural activity theory being carried out by G. Z. Bedny and his associates.
and extended Vygotsky's research framework in significantly new ways. Leont'ev first examined the psychology of animals, looking at the different degrees to which animals can be said to have mental processes. He concluded that Pavlov's
reflexionism was not a sufficient explanation of animal behaviour and that animals have an active relation to reality, which he called activity. In particular, the behaviour of higher primates such as chimpanzees could only be explained by the ape's formation of multi-phase plans using tools.
Leont'ev then progressed to humans and pointed out that people engage in "actions" that do not in themselves satisfy a need, but contribute towards the eventual satisfaction of a need. Often, these actions only make sense in a social context of a shared work activity. This led him to a distinction between activities, which satisfy a need, and the actions that constitute the activities.
Leont'ev also argued that the activity in which a person is involved is reflected in their mental activity, that is (as he puts it) material reality is "presented" to consciousness, but only in its vital meaning or significance.
and Leont'ev's activity theory with Western intellectual developments such as Cognitive Science
, American Pragmatism, Constructivism
, and Actor-Network Theory
. It is known as Scandinavian activity theory
. Work in the systems-structural theory of activity is also being carried on by researchers in the US and UK.
The development of SSAT has been specifically oriented toward the analysis and design of the basic elements of human work activity: tasks, tools, methods, objects and results, and the skills, experience and abilities of involved subjects. SSAT has developed techniques for both the qualitative and quantitative description of work activity. Its design-oriented analyses specifically focus on the interrelationship between the structure and self-regulation of work activity and the configuration of its material components.
, have employed Activity Theory to provide a framework for informing (cf. interaction design
) and evaluating design. This framework grew from the limitations of cognitivist theory, which Kaptelinin and Nardi describe as a postcognitivist perspective to interaction design .
Activity Theory in HCI describes "purposeful interaction" between subject and object in the world mediated by tools, both psychological and physical . These tools become more readily accessible as they are communicable to other people, thereafter becoming useful for social interaction..
In this framework, any task, or activity, can be broken down into actions, which are further subdivided into operations. In a design context, using these categories can provide the designer with an understanding of the steps necessary for a user to carry out a task..
Activities include automatic, conscious actions or goal-directed actions where there exists an Intentionality. Activity Theory hinges on this intentionality and the concept of object-orientedness, where reality is objective and there is a directionality and hierarchy between subject, object, tool and elements of the context. This object-orientedness is further supported by defining the subject of these interactions as a human. According to Activity Theory, humans have the agency or intentionality to complete goal-directed actions. Following this, the distinction between subject and object lies in human's agency: humans are information processing entities that have needs and power over or attraction to objects. In this way, objects do not have agency, but instead provides motives for an action. This notion of agency separates Activity Theory from similar theoretical counterparts, namely Actor Network Theory.
Through the lens of Activity Theory, tools shape the way a human interacts with an object. The manner in which a human uses a tool reflects knowledge of how the tool should be used, previous societal attempts at solving similar problems and a convergence of internal and external cognition of the individual. Mediating tools are also changed by the interaction as activity occurs. Mediating tools have been changed through previous interactions. As these interactions occur as do developmental transformations, where the interconnectedness of interactions motivate the dynamic, continual change of practices over time .
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
, or theoretical framework, with its roots in Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology
Cultural-historical psychology
Cultural-historical psychology is a theory of psychology founded by Lev Vygotsky at the end of the 1920s and developed by his students and followers in...
. Its founders were Alexei N. Leont'ev (1903-1979), and Sergei Rubinshtein (1889–1960), who sought to understand human activities as complex, socially situated phenomena and go beyond paradigms of cognition
Cognition
In science, cognition refers to mental processes. These processes include attention, remembering, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions. Cognition is studied in various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science...
, psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis has expanded, been criticized and developed in different directions, mostly by some of Freud's former students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav...
and behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism , also called the learning perspective , is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do—including acting, thinking, and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior...
. It became one of the major psychological approaches in the former USSR, being widely used in both theoretical and applied psychology, in areas such as education, training, ergonomics, and work psychology.
Activity theory is particularly useful as a lens in ethnographic research. AT provides a method of understanding and analyzing a phenomenon, finding patterns and making inferences across interactions, describing phenomena and presenting phenomena through a built-in language and rhetoric. The lens of activity theory provides a number of constructs by focusing on activities as the unit of analysis, particularly activities as a goal-directed or "purposeful" interaction of a subject with an object through use of a tool. These tools are "exteriorized" forms of mental processes manifested in constructs whether physical or psychological. Activity Theory recognizes the internalization and externalization of cognitive processes involved in use of tools, as well as the transformation or development that results from the interaction.
The history of activity theory
The origins of activity theory can be traced to several sources, which have subsequently given rise to various complementary and intertwined strands of development. This account will focus on two of the most important of these strands. The first is associated with the Moscow Institute of Psychology and in particular the troika of young researchers, Lev Semyonovich VygotskyLev Vygotsky
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of cultural-historical psychology, and the leader of the Vygotsky Circle.-Biography:...
(1896–1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902–77) and Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev (1903–79). Vygotsky founded cultural-historical psychology, an important strand in the activity approach; Leont’ev, one of the principal founders of activity theory, both continued, and reacted against, Vygotsky's work. Leont'ev's formulation of general activity theory is currently the most influential in post-Soviet developments in AT, which have largely been in social-scientific and organizational, rather than psychological research.
The second major line of development within activity theory involves scientists, such as P. K. Anokhin (1898-1974) and N. A. Bernshtein (1896-1966), more directly concerned with the neurophysiological basis of activity; its foundation is associated with the Soviet philosopher of psychology S. L. Rubinshtein (1889-1960). This work was subsequently developed by researchers such as Pushkin, Zinchenko & Gordeeva, Ponomarenko, Zarakovsky and others, as is currently most well-known through the work on systemic-structural activity theory being carried out by G. Z. Bedny and his associates.
Leont'ev
After Vygotsky's early death, Leont'ev became the leader of the research group nowadays known as the Kharkov school of psychologyKharkov School of Psychology
Kharkiv School of Psychology is a tradition of developmental psychological research conducted in the paradigm of Lev Vygotsky's "sociocultural theory of mind" and Leontiev's psychological activity theory....
and extended Vygotsky's research framework in significantly new ways. Leont'ev first examined the psychology of animals, looking at the different degrees to which animals can be said to have mental processes. He concluded that Pavlov's
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a famous Russian physiologist. Although he made significant contributions to psychology, he was not in fact a psychologist himself but was a mathematician and actually had strong distaste for the field....
reflexionism was not a sufficient explanation of animal behaviour and that animals have an active relation to reality, which he called activity. In particular, the behaviour of higher primates such as chimpanzees could only be explained by the ape's formation of multi-phase plans using tools.
Leont'ev then progressed to humans and pointed out that people engage in "actions" that do not in themselves satisfy a need, but contribute towards the eventual satisfaction of a need. Often, these actions only make sense in a social context of a shared work activity. This led him to a distinction between activities, which satisfy a need, and the actions that constitute the activities.
Leont'ev also argued that the activity in which a person is involved is reflected in their mental activity, that is (as he puts it) material reality is "presented" to consciousness, but only in its vital meaning or significance.
Developments in activity theory
Activity theory is dynamic. It can be used by a variety of disciplines to understand the way people act.Scandinavian activity theory
This major school of thought seeks to integrate and develop concepts from Vygotsky's Cultural-Historical PsychologyCultural-historical psychology
Cultural-historical psychology is a theory of psychology founded by Lev Vygotsky at the end of the 1920s and developed by his students and followers in...
and Leont'ev's activity theory with Western intellectual developments such as Cognitive Science
Cognitive science
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on how information is processed , represented, and transformed in behaviour, nervous system or machine...
, American Pragmatism, Constructivism
Constructivism
Constructivism may refer to:* Constructivist epistemology, the philosophical view* Constructivism in international relations* Constructivism , a philosophical view on mathematical proofs and existence of mathematical objects...
, and Actor-Network Theory
Actor-network theory
Actor–network theory, often abbreviated as ANT, is a distinctive approach to social theory and research which originated in the field of science studies...
. It is known as Scandinavian activity theory
Scandinavian activity theory
Scandinavian activity theory is a derivation of Soviet Activity theory, a psychological meta-theory, paradigm, or framework, with its roots in the Soviet psychologist Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology.-History:...
. Work in the systems-structural theory of activity is also being carried on by researchers in the US and UK.
Systemic-structural activity theory (SSAT)
At the end of the 1990s, a group of Russian and American activity theorists working in the systems-cybernetic tradition of Bernshtein and Anokhin began to publish English-language articles and books dealing with topics in human factors and ergonomics and, latterly, human-computer interaction. Under the rubric of systemic-structural activity theory (SSAT), this work represents a modern synthesis within activity theory which brings together the cultural-historical and systems-structural strands of the tradition (as well as other work within Soviet psychology such as the Psychology of Set) with findings and methods from Western human factors/ergonomics and cognitive psychology.The development of SSAT has been specifically oriented toward the analysis and design of the basic elements of human work activity: tasks, tools, methods, objects and results, and the skills, experience and abilities of involved subjects. SSAT has developed techniques for both the qualitative and quantitative description of work activity. Its design-oriented analyses specifically focus on the interrelationship between the structure and self-regulation of work activity and the configuration of its material components.
Activity Theory in Human-Computer Interaction
Recent developments in the study of Human-Computer Interaction and cognitive scienceCognitive science
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on how information is processed , represented, and transformed in behaviour, nervous system or machine...
, have employed Activity Theory to provide a framework for informing (cf. interaction design
Interaction design
In design, human–computer interaction, and software development, interaction design, often abbreviated IxD, is "the practice of designing interactive digital products, environments, systems, and services." Like many other design fields interaction design also has an interest in form but its main...
) and evaluating design. This framework grew from the limitations of cognitivist theory, which Kaptelinin and Nardi describe as a postcognitivist perspective to interaction design .
Activity Theory in HCI describes "purposeful interaction" between subject and object in the world mediated by tools, both psychological and physical . These tools become more readily accessible as they are communicable to other people, thereafter becoming useful for social interaction..
In this framework, any task, or activity, can be broken down into actions, which are further subdivided into operations. In a design context, using these categories can provide the designer with an understanding of the steps necessary for a user to carry out a task..
Activities include automatic, conscious actions or goal-directed actions where there exists an Intentionality. Activity Theory hinges on this intentionality and the concept of object-orientedness, where reality is objective and there is a directionality and hierarchy between subject, object, tool and elements of the context. This object-orientedness is further supported by defining the subject of these interactions as a human. According to Activity Theory, humans have the agency or intentionality to complete goal-directed actions. Following this, the distinction between subject and object lies in human's agency: humans are information processing entities that have needs and power over or attraction to objects. In this way, objects do not have agency, but instead provides motives for an action. This notion of agency separates Activity Theory from similar theoretical counterparts, namely Actor Network Theory.
Through the lens of Activity Theory, tools shape the way a human interacts with an object. The manner in which a human uses a tool reflects knowledge of how the tool should be used, previous societal attempts at solving similar problems and a convergence of internal and external cognition of the individual. Mediating tools are also changed by the interaction as activity occurs. Mediating tools have been changed through previous interactions. As these interactions occur as do developmental transformations, where the interconnectedness of interactions motivate the dynamic, continual change of practices over time .
Sources
- Leont'ev, A. Problems of the development of mind. English translation, Progress Press, 1981, Moscow. (Russian original 1947).
- Leont'ev, A. Activity, Consciousness, and Personality
- Engeström, Y. Learning by expanding
- Yasnitsky, A. (2011). Vygotsky Circle as a Personal Network of Scholars: Restoring Connections Between People and Ideas. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, DOI: 10.1007/s12124-011-9168-5 pdf
See also
- Social constructivism (learning theory)
- Critical psychologyCritical psychologyCritical psychology is an approach to psychology that takes a critical theory–based perspective. Critical psychology is aimed at critiquing mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychology in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating...
- Active learningActive learningActive learning is an umbrella term that refers to several models of instruction that focus the responsibility of learning, on learners. Bonwell and Eison popularized this approach to instruction . This "buzz word" of the 1980s became their 1990s report to the Association for the Study of Higher...
- Anna StetsenkoAnna StetsenkoAnna Stetsenko, born in the former Soviet Union, is a developmental psychologist at the City University of New York. She has developed theories about infants' concepts of thinking and speaking based on the research of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky and Jean Piaget...
- Interaction designInteraction designIn design, human–computer interaction, and software development, interaction design, often abbreviated IxD, is "the practice of designing interactive digital products, environments, systems, and services." Like many other design fields interaction design also has an interest in form but its main...
- Scandinavian activity theoryScandinavian activity theoryScandinavian activity theory is a derivation of Soviet Activity theory, a psychological meta-theory, paradigm, or framework, with its roots in the Soviet psychologist Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology.-History:...