Adulis
Encyclopedia
Adulis or Aduli is an archeological site in the Northern Red Sea region
of Eritrea
, about 30 miles south of Massawa
. It was the port of the Kingdom of Aksum, located on the coast of the Red Sea
. Adulis Bay is named after the port. It is thought that the modern town of Zula
may be the Adulis of Aksumite times, as Zula may reflect the native name for the Greek "Adulis."
Pliny the Elder
is the earliest writer to mention Adulis (N.H. 6.34), who misunderstood the name of the place, and thought its name meant that it had been founded by escaped Egypt
ian slaves. He further stated that it was the 'principle mart for the Troglodytae
and the people of Ethiopia
'. It is mentioned by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
, a guide of the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean
, which describes it as an emporium for the ivory
, hides, slaves and other exports of the interior. It may have previously been known as Berenice Panchrysus of the Ptolemies
.
Cosmas Indicopleustes
records two inscriptions he found here in the 6th century: the first records how Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 BC) used war elephants captured in the region to gain victories in his wars abroad; the second, known as the Monumentum Adulitanum
, was inscribed in the 27th year of an unnamed king of Axum, boasting of his victories to the north and south of Axum.
A fourth century work traditionally (but probably incorrectly) ascribed to the writer Palladius of Galatia
, relates the journey of an anonymous Egyptian lawyer (scholasticus) to India
in order to investigate Brahmin
philosophy, he was accompanied part of the way by one Moise or Moses, bishop of Adulis.
Control of Adulis allowed Axum to be the major power on the Red Sea
. This port was the principal staging area for Kaleb's
invasion of the Himyarite kingdom of Dhu Nuwas
around 520. While the scholar Yuri Kobishchanov detailed a number of raids Aksumites made on the Arabian coast (the latest being in 702, when the port of Jeddah
was occupied), and argued that Adulis was later captured by the Muslim
s, which brought to an end Axum's naval ability and contributed to the Aksumite Kingdom's isolation from the Byzantine Empire
and other traditional allies, the last years of Adulis are a mystery. Muslim writers occasionally mention both Adulis and the nearby Dahlak Archipelago
as places of exile, the evidence suggests that Axum maintained its access to the Red Sea, yet suffered a clear decline in fortunes from the seventh century onwards. In any case, the sea power of Axum waned and security for the Red Sea fell on other shoulders.
mission to Eritrea under Vignaud and Petit performed an initial survey in 1840, and prepared a map which marked the location of thee structures they believed were temples. In 1868, workers attached to Napier's
campaign against Tewodros II visited Adulis and exposed several buildings, including the foundations of a Byzantine
-like church.
The first scientific excavations were undertaken by a German
expedition in 1906 under the supervision of R. Sundström, who worked in the northern sector of the site, exposing a large structure Sundström labelled the "palace of Adulis", as well as recovering Axumite coinage; their results were published in four volumes in 1913. R. Paribeni excavated in Adulis the following year, discovering many structures similar to what Sundström had found the previous year, but also a number of ordinary dwellings. Wine amphorae imported from the area of modern Aqaba
where found here. These types now called Ayla-Axum Amphoras
have since been found at other sites in Eritrea including on Black Assarca Island
.
Over 50 years passed until the next series of excavations, when in 1961 and 1962 the Ethiopian Institute of Archeology sponsored an expedition led by Francis Anfray, which not only recovered materials showing a strong affinities with the late Axumite kingdom, but a destruction layer which prompted Kobishchanov to later argue that Adulis had been destroyed by an Arab raid in the mid-7th century, a view that has since been rejected.
One very specialised imported vessel found at Adulis was a Menas flask stamped with a design
showing the Egyptian St. Menas between two kneeling camels; such vessels are supposed
to have held water from a spring near the saint's tomb in Egypt (Paribeni 1907: 538, fig.
54), and this one may have been brought to Adulis by a pilgrim.
Since Eritrean Independence, the National Museum of Eritrea
has petitioned the Government of Ethiopia to return artifacts of these excavations. To date they have been denied.
Regions of Eritrea
||At the time of Independence in 1993 Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions...
of Eritrea
Eritrea
Eritrea , officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea derives it's name from the Greek word Erethria, meaning 'red land'. The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast...
, about 30 miles south of Massawa
Massawa
Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa (Ge'ez ምጽዋዕ , formerly ባጽዕ is a city on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate,...
. It was the port of the Kingdom of Aksum, located on the coast of the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. Adulis Bay is named after the port. It is thought that the modern town of Zula
Zula
Zula is a small town in central Eritrea. It is situated near the head of Annesley Bay , on the Red Sea coast...
may be the Adulis of Aksumite times, as Zula may reflect the native name for the Greek "Adulis."
History
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
is the earliest writer to mention Adulis (N.H. 6.34), who misunderstood the name of the place, and thought its name meant that it had been founded by escaped Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
ian slaves. He further stated that it was the 'principle mart for the Troglodytae
Troglodytae
The Troglodytae or Troglodyti , were a people mentioned in various locations by many ancient Greek and Roman geographers and historians including Agatharcides, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, Tacitus, Josephus, etc....
and the people of Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
'. It is mentioned by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea or Periplus of the Red Sea is a Greco-Roman periplus, written in Greek, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and India...
, a guide of the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
and the Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
, which describes it as an emporium for the ivory
Ivory
Ivory is a term for dentine, which constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals, when used as a material for art or manufacturing. Ivory has been important since ancient times for making a range of items, from ivory carvings to false teeth, fans, dominoes, joint tubes, piano keys and...
, hides, slaves and other exports of the interior. It may have previously been known as Berenice Panchrysus of the Ptolemies
Ptolemaic dynasty
The Ptolemaic dynasty, was a Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 BC to 30 BC...
.
Cosmas Indicopleustes
Cosmas Indicopleustes
Cosmas Indicopleustes was an Alexandrian merchant and later hermit, probably of Nestorian tendencies. He was a 6th-century traveller, who made several voyages to India during the reign of emperor Justinian...
records two inscriptions he found here in the 6th century: the first records how Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 BC) used war elephants captured in the region to gain victories in his wars abroad; the second, known as the Monumentum Adulitanum
Monumentum Adulitanum
The Monumentum Adulitanum was an ancient Adulite inscription in Greek and Ge'ez depicting the military campaigns of an Adulite king. Though the inscription and the monument have never been located by archaeologists we know about it through the copying of the inscription by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a...
, was inscribed in the 27th year of an unnamed king of Axum, boasting of his victories to the north and south of Axum.
A fourth century work traditionally (but probably incorrectly) ascribed to the writer Palladius of Galatia
Palladius of Galatia
Palladius of Galatia was bishop of Helenopolis in Bithynia, and a devoted disciple of Saint John Chrysostom. He is best remembered for his work, the Lausiac History; he was also, in all probability, the author of the Dialogue on the Life of Chrysostom....
, relates the journey of an anonymous Egyptian lawyer (scholasticus) to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
in order to investigate Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
philosophy, he was accompanied part of the way by one Moise or Moses, bishop of Adulis.
Control of Adulis allowed Axum to be the major power on the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. This port was the principal staging area for Kaleb's
Kaleb of Axum
Kaleb is perhaps the best-documented, if not best-known, king of Axum. Procopius of Caesarea calls him "Hellestheaeus", a variant of his throne name Ella Atsbeha or Ella Asbeha...
invasion of the Himyarite kingdom of Dhu Nuwas
Dhu Nuwas
Yūsuf Dhū Nuwas, was the last king of the Himyarite kingdom of Yemen and a convert to Judaism....
around 520. While the scholar Yuri Kobishchanov detailed a number of raids Aksumites made on the Arabian coast (the latest being in 702, when the port of Jeddah
Jeddah
Jeddah, Jiddah, Jidda, or Jedda is a city located on the coast of the Red Sea and is the major urban center of western Saudi Arabia. It is the largest city in Makkah Province, the largest sea port on the Red Sea, and the second largest city in Saudi Arabia after the capital city, Riyadh. The...
was occupied), and argued that Adulis was later captured by the Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
s, which brought to an end Axum's naval ability and contributed to the Aksumite Kingdom's isolation from the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
and other traditional allies, the last years of Adulis are a mystery. Muslim writers occasionally mention both Adulis and the nearby Dahlak Archipelago
Dahlak Archipelago
The Dahlak Archipelago is an island group located in the Red Sea near Massawa, Eritrea. It consists of two large and 124 small islands. The pearl fisheries of the archipelago have been famous since Roman times and still produce a substantial number of pearls. Only four of the islands are...
as places of exile, the evidence suggests that Axum maintained its access to the Red Sea, yet suffered a clear decline in fortunes from the seventh century onwards. In any case, the sea power of Axum waned and security for the Red Sea fell on other shoulders.
Archeological excavations
Adulis was one of the first Axumite sites to undergo excavation, when a FrenchFrance
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
mission to Eritrea under Vignaud and Petit performed an initial survey in 1840, and prepared a map which marked the location of thee structures they believed were temples. In 1868, workers attached to Napier's
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
Field Marshal Robert Cornelis Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala, GCB, GCSI, CIE, FRS was a British soldier.-Early life:...
campaign against Tewodros II visited Adulis and exposed several buildings, including the foundations of a Byzantine
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
-like church.
The first scientific excavations were undertaken by a German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
expedition in 1906 under the supervision of R. Sundström, who worked in the northern sector of the site, exposing a large structure Sundström labelled the "palace of Adulis", as well as recovering Axumite coinage; their results were published in four volumes in 1913. R. Paribeni excavated in Adulis the following year, discovering many structures similar to what Sundström had found the previous year, but also a number of ordinary dwellings. Wine amphorae imported from the area of modern Aqaba
Aqaba
Aqaba is a coastal city in the far south of Jordan, the capital of Aqaba Governorate at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. Aqaba is strategically important to Jordan as it is the country's only seaport. Aqaba is best known today as a diving and beach resort, but industrial activity remains important...
where found here. These types now called Ayla-Axum Amphoras
Ayla-Axum Amphoras
These narrow conical amphoras are a type lately called “Ayla-Axum” after the widest range of finds in the Red Sea. The Ayla-Axum amphora has parallels from at least three terrestrial sites in Eritrea and Ethiopia: Aksum, where amphora sherds with gray fabric were found by the Deutsche Aksum...
have since been found at other sites in Eritrea including on Black Assarca Island
The Shipwreck at Black Assarca Island, Eritrea
- Overview :Discovered in 1995 by tourists, the shipwreck at Black Assarca Island, Eritrea was surveyed in 1995 and excavated in 1997 by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology under the auspices of the Ministry of Marine Resources of Eritrea. Directed by Ralph K. Pedersen , the expedition...
.
Over 50 years passed until the next series of excavations, when in 1961 and 1962 the Ethiopian Institute of Archeology sponsored an expedition led by Francis Anfray, which not only recovered materials showing a strong affinities with the late Axumite kingdom, but a destruction layer which prompted Kobishchanov to later argue that Adulis had been destroyed by an Arab raid in the mid-7th century, a view that has since been rejected.
One very specialised imported vessel found at Adulis was a Menas flask stamped with a design
showing the Egyptian St. Menas between two kneeling camels; such vessels are supposed
to have held water from a spring near the saint's tomb in Egypt (Paribeni 1907: 538, fig.
54), and this one may have been brought to Adulis by a pilgrim.
Since Eritrean Independence, the National Museum of Eritrea
National Museum of Eritrea
The National Museum of Eritrea was inaugurated in 1992 by Woldeab Woldemariam. The Museum was originally located in the former Governor's Palace until it was moved in 1997. It has since been moved to the former Comboni Sisters School for Women....
has petitioned the Government of Ethiopia to return artifacts of these excavations. To date they have been denied.