Afonso Dhlakama
Encyclopedia
Afonso Marceta Macacho Dhlakama (born 1 January 1953) is a Mozambican
politician and the leader of RENAMO, an anti-communist guerrilla
organization that fought the FRELIMO government in the Mozambican Civil War
before signing a peace agreement and becoming an opposition political party in the early 1990s.
Dhlakama was born in Mangunde, Sofala Province
.
, was killed by Mozambican government forces in 1979, Dklakama became leader after a violent succession struggle, in which rival Orlando Cristina was assassinated. By 1984, Dhalakama was both commander in chief of RENAMO's forces and head of the governing body, the 12-member executive council. As leader of RENAMO Dhlakama sought to destabilize the FRELIMO government through guerilla and terrorist strategies. Under his command RENAMO reached the peak of its power, controlling large parts of the country, especially in the north and being able to carry out raids virtually anywhere outside the major cities. In its fight RENAMO was supported by conservative circles in some western countries, including the United States
, the BRD
and most importantly by the racist regimes of Rhodesia
and South Africa
to whom FRELIMO ruled Mozambique was a target due to its support of resistance movements within their countries. However, the end of the cold war, the collapse of Rhodesia's Smith regime
and, most importantly, the transition taking place in South Africa eventually deprived RENAMO of its financial supporters and arms suppliers. Thus, RENAMO and FRELIMO, which had also lost its supporters from the eastern power block, finally signed a peace treaty
in October 1992. RENAMO subsequently transformed itself into a legal political party under the continued leadership of Afonso Dhlakama.
Another way of using civilians for military purposes was the so called system of „Gandira“. This system especially affected the rural population in areas controlled by RENAMO and forced them, to fulfil three main tasks: 1) food production for RENAMO, 2) transport of goods and ammunition, 3) availability of women as sex slaves. Often women would be apprehended while out on the fields or fetching water and raped as a means to boost troop moral. Gandira caused wide-spread starvation among the rural population due to the little time left to produce food for themselves. This caused more and more persons to be bodily unable to endure the long transportation marches demanded from them. However falling behind on those marches resulted in severe beating and often execution.
RENAMO crimes only gained worldwide public attention through the massacre of Homoine when RENAMO soldiers butchered 424 civilians including the patients of a hospital with guns and machetes during a raid on the rural town of Homoine. This incident prompted an investigation into RENAMO methods by US-State Department consultant Robert Gersony
which finally put an end to right wing ambitions to bring about US-government support for RENAMO. The report describes that RENAMO's course of action in Homoine did not significantly differ from the tactics it normally employed in such raids. These methods are described in the report in the following way:
Thus it appears the only difference between the Homoine massacre and RENAMO's usual methods was the size of the operation. Normally RENAMO would choose smaller, easier targets instead of attacking a town defended by some 90 government soldiers.
The Mozambican civil war caused about 1000000 deaths and over five million refugees out of a total population of ca. 13-15 million at the time. Despite the massive scale and organized manner in which war crimes and crimes against humanity have been committed under his command, Dhlakama so far did not have to appear before a war crimes tribunal of any sort.
held in Mozambique. In 1994, he was defeated by incumbent President and FRELIMO candidate Joaquim Chissano
by a margin of 53.3% to 33.7%. He received 47.7% of the vote in the 1999 presidential election with Chissano capturing 52.3%. In the December 2004 presidential election
, he was defeated by FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza
, who received 63.7% of the vote to his 31.7%.
International observers to the elections criticized the fact that the National Electoral Commission (CNE) did not conduct entirely fair and transparent elections. They listed a whole range of serious shortcomings by the electoral authorities that benefited the ruling party FRELIMO. Some believe that the pronounced outcome of the parliamentary election and thus the distribution of seats in the National Assembly does not reflect the will of the Mozambican people.
Upon the creation of the Council of State, a body tasked with advising the President, Dklahama was included on the Council due to his role as leader of the opposition; he and the other members of the Council were sworn in on 23 December 2005. He said that he accepted his seat on the Council for the sake of national stability.
Dhlakama was injured in a car crash in Maputo
on June 10, 2007. A RENAMO spokesman described the injuries as minor.
Although RENAMO was apparently weakened by the defection of Daviz Simango
, who formed a new party, Dhlakama was re-elected for another five-year term as RENAMO leader on 22 July 2009 at a party congress in Nampula Province
, defeating another candidate, Rogerio Francisco Joao. He was RENAMO's candidate in the October 2009 presidential election
.
Dhlakama repeatedly threatened to reestablish RENAMO armed forces and to let the country "burn". In 2011 he stated that RENAMO was preparing a "revolution" to rid the government from power and establishing new barracks for this purpose.
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
politician and the leader of RENAMO, an anti-communist guerrilla
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
organization that fought the FRELIMO government in the Mozambican Civil War
Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique , was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement...
before signing a peace agreement and becoming an opposition political party in the early 1990s.
Dhlakama was born in Mangunde, Sofala Province
Sofala Province
Sofala is a province of Mozambique. It has an area of 68,018 km² and a population of 1.676.131 . Beira is the capital of the province. The province is named for the ruined port of Sofala.- Districts :Districts of Sofala Province include:...
.
Mozambican Civil War
After RENAMO's first leader, André MatsangaissaAndré Matsangaissa
André Matade Matsangaissa was a Mozambican anti-communist rebel and the first leader of the Rhodesian-backed Mozambican National Resistance ....
, was killed by Mozambican government forces in 1979, Dklakama became leader after a violent succession struggle, in which rival Orlando Cristina was assassinated. By 1984, Dhalakama was both commander in chief of RENAMO's forces and head of the governing body, the 12-member executive council. As leader of RENAMO Dhlakama sought to destabilize the FRELIMO government through guerilla and terrorist strategies. Under his command RENAMO reached the peak of its power, controlling large parts of the country, especially in the north and being able to carry out raids virtually anywhere outside the major cities. In its fight RENAMO was supported by conservative circles in some western countries, including the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the BRD
BRD
BRD was an unofficial Cold War-era abbreviation for the Federal Republic of Germany . It is now uncommon, but was used consistently by the German Democratic Republic between 1968 and 1990 to refer to what was generally known in English as West Germany...
and most importantly by the racist regimes of Rhodesia
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
and South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
to whom FRELIMO ruled Mozambique was a target due to its support of resistance movements within their countries. However, the end of the cold war, the collapse of Rhodesia's Smith regime
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
and, most importantly, the transition taking place in South Africa eventually deprived RENAMO of its financial supporters and arms suppliers. Thus, RENAMO and FRELIMO, which had also lost its supporters from the eastern power block, finally signed a peace treaty
Rome General Peace Accords
The Rome General Peace Accords between the Mozambican Civil War parties, the Frelimo and the Renamo , put an end to the Mozambique Civil War. It was signed on October 4, 1992. Negotiations preceding in began in July 1990...
in October 1992. RENAMO subsequently transformed itself into a legal political party under the continued leadership of Afonso Dhlakama.
War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity
Under Dhlakama's leadership RENAMO systematically committed war crimes and crimes against humanity as part of its destabilization strategy. These include mass killing, rape and mutilation of non-combatants during terroristic raids on villages and towns as well as systematically forcing civilians into RENAMO's employment. This was done by mass abduction, especially of children in order to abuse them as child soldiers. It is estimated that one third of RENAMO forces were child soldiers. But abducted people also had to serve RENAMO in administrative or public service functions in the areas it controlled. Refusing to work for RENAMO would be punished by heavy beating or even on the spot execution as were flight attempts. One particularly gruesome practice was the mutilation and killing of children left behind by escaped parents.Another way of using civilians for military purposes was the so called system of „Gandira“. This system especially affected the rural population in areas controlled by RENAMO and forced them, to fulfil three main tasks: 1) food production for RENAMO, 2) transport of goods and ammunition, 3) availability of women as sex slaves. Often women would be apprehended while out on the fields or fetching water and raped as a means to boost troop moral. Gandira caused wide-spread starvation among the rural population due to the little time left to produce food for themselves. This caused more and more persons to be bodily unable to endure the long transportation marches demanded from them. However falling behind on those marches resulted in severe beating and often execution.
RENAMO crimes only gained worldwide public attention through the massacre of Homoine when RENAMO soldiers butchered 424 civilians including the patients of a hospital with guns and machetes during a raid on the rural town of Homoine. This incident prompted an investigation into RENAMO methods by US-State Department consultant Robert Gersony
Robert Gersony
Robert Gersony is an American consultant known for his reports on conflict-affected countries, in particular in Africa. His most famous work, the 1994 "Gersony Report", was never actually finished...
which finally put an end to right wing ambitions to bring about US-government support for RENAMO. The report describes that RENAMO's course of action in Homoine did not significantly differ from the tactics it normally employed in such raids. These methods are described in the report in the following way:
-
- „The attack stage was sometimes reported to begin with what appeared to the inhabitants to be the indiscriminate firing of automatic weapons by a substantial force of attacking RENAMO combatants. […] Reportedly the Government soldiers aim their defensive fire at the attackers, while the RENAMO forces shoot indiscriminately into the village. In some cases refugees perceived that the attacking force had divided into three detachments: one conducts the military attack; another enters houses and removes valuables, mainly clothing, radios, food, pots and other possessions; a third moves through the looted houses with pieces of burning thatch setting fire to the houses in the village. There were several reports that schools and health clinics are typical targets for destruction. The destruction of the village as a viable entity appears to be the main objective of such attacks. This type of attack causes several types of civilian casualties. As is normal in guerrilla warfare, some civilians are killed in crossfire between the two opposing forces, although this tends in the view of the refugees to account for only a minority of the deaths. A larger number of civilians in these attacks and other contexts were reported to be victims of purposeful shooting deaths and executions, of axing, knifing, bayoneting, burning to death, forced drowning and asphyxiation, and other forms of murder where no meaningful resistance or defense is present. Eyewitness accounts indicate that when civilians are killed in these indiscriminate attacks, whether against defended or undefended villages, children, often together with mothers and elderly people, are also killed. Varying numbers of civilian victims in each attack were reported to be rounded up and abducted [...].“
Thus it appears the only difference between the Homoine massacre and RENAMO's usual methods was the size of the operation. Normally RENAMO would choose smaller, easier targets instead of attacking a town defended by some 90 government soldiers.
The Mozambican civil war caused about 1000000 deaths and over five million refugees out of a total population of ca. 13-15 million at the time. Despite the massive scale and organized manner in which war crimes and crimes against humanity have been committed under his command, Dhlakama so far did not have to appear before a war crimes tribunal of any sort.
Post Civil War Activity
Dhlakama has competed as the RENAMO candidate in all three multiparty presidential electionsElections in Mozambique
Elections in Mozambique gives information on election and election results in Mozambique.Mozambique elects on national level a head of state - the president - and a legislature. The president is elected for a five year term by the people...
held in Mozambique. In 1994, he was defeated by incumbent President and FRELIMO candidate Joaquim Chissano
Joaquim Chissano
Joaquim Alberto Chissano served as the second President of Mozambique for nineteen years from 6 November 1986 until 2 February 2005. Since stepping down as president, Chissano has become an elder statesman and is called upon by international bodies, such as the United Nations, to be an envoy or...
by a margin of 53.3% to 33.7%. He received 47.7% of the vote in the 1999 presidential election with Chissano capturing 52.3%. In the December 2004 presidential election
Mozambique presidential election, 2004
General elections were held in Mozambique on 1 and 2 December 2004 to elect a president and the Assembly of the Republic. Incumbent president Joaquim Chissano stepped down after 18 years in power, with five candidates running to succeed him. Armando Guebuza of the ruling FRELIMO party won, with...
, he was defeated by FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza
Armando Guebuza
Armando Emílio Guebuza is a Mozambican politician and the President of Mozambique since 2005.- Career :Armando Emílio Guebuza was born in 20 January 1943 in Portuguese East Africa...
, who received 63.7% of the vote to his 31.7%.
International observers to the elections criticized the fact that the National Electoral Commission (CNE) did not conduct entirely fair and transparent elections. They listed a whole range of serious shortcomings by the electoral authorities that benefited the ruling party FRELIMO. Some believe that the pronounced outcome of the parliamentary election and thus the distribution of seats in the National Assembly does not reflect the will of the Mozambican people.
Upon the creation of the Council of State, a body tasked with advising the President, Dklahama was included on the Council due to his role as leader of the opposition; he and the other members of the Council were sworn in on 23 December 2005. He said that he accepted his seat on the Council for the sake of national stability.
Dhlakama was injured in a car crash in Maputo
Maputo
Maputo, also known as Lourenço Marques, is the capital and largest city of Mozambique. It is known as the City of Acacias in reference to acacia trees commonly found along its avenues and the Pearl of the Indian Ocean. It was famous for the inscription "This is Portugal" on the walkway of its...
on June 10, 2007. A RENAMO spokesman described the injuries as minor.
Although RENAMO was apparently weakened by the defection of Daviz Simango
Daviz Simango
Daviz Mbepo Simango is a Mozambican politician, the President of the Democratic Movement of Mozambique and the current mayor of Beira. He is son of Uria Simango, the first Vice-President of FRELIMO. He joined the RENAMO in 1997 and became the mayor of Beira in 2003 as its candidate...
, who formed a new party, Dhlakama was re-elected for another five-year term as RENAMO leader on 22 July 2009 at a party congress in Nampula Province
Nampula Province
Nampula is a province of Mozambique. It has an area of 81,606 km² and a population of 3.985.285 . Nampula is the capital of the province...
, defeating another candidate, Rogerio Francisco Joao. He was RENAMO's candidate in the October 2009 presidential election
Mozambican general election, 2009
General elections to elect the President, Assembly of the Republic, and Provincial Assemblies was held in Mozambique on 28 October 2009. Incumbent President Armando Guebuza ran for re-election as the FRELIMO candidate; he was challenged by opposition leader Afonso Dhlakama, who had stood as the...
.
Dhlakama repeatedly threatened to reestablish RENAMO armed forces and to let the country "burn". In 2011 he stated that RENAMO was preparing a "revolution" to rid the government from power and establishing new barracks for this purpose.