Africana womanism
Encyclopedia
"Africana Womanism" is a termed coined in the late 1980s by Clenora Hudson-Weems
intended as an ideology applicable to all women of African descent. It is grounded in African culture and Afrocentrism
and focuses on the experiences, struggles, needs, and desires of Africana women of the African diaspora
. It distinguishes itself from feminism
, or Alice Walker
's womanism
.
The Africana Womanism Society lists eighteen characteristics of the The Africana womanist, including self-naming, self-defining, family-centered, flexible and desiring positive male companionship .
, Professor of English, University of Missouri, author of Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, coined the concept Africana Womanism in the late 1980s (Africana is the feminine form of the latin Africanus, meaning Of Africa, and appears to be preferred by the movement over African). Hudson-Weems argues that "Africana Womanism is not an addendum to feminism, Black feminism
, African feminism or Alice Walker's womanism" According to Patricia Collins, "Although some Africana women may support the very ideas on which feminism rests, however, many of them reject the term “feminism” because of what they perceive as its association with white women’s cause. They see feminism as operating exclusively within the terms white and American and perceive its opposite as being Black and American." Further many African men and women do not accept the ideology of feminism. According to Hudson-Weems, she states that "there is a general consensus in the Africana community that the feminist movement, by and large, is the White woman's movement for two reason. First, the Africana woman does not see the man as her primary enemy as does the White feminist, who is carrying out an age-old battle with her White male counterpart for subjugating her as his property. Africana men have never had the same institutionalized power to oppress Africana women as White men have had to oppress White women."
Africana Womanism contrasts feminist/womanist ideology and many Africana women (and men) have come to embrace it . Hudson-Weems (1998), Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, explains the development of Africana Womanism:
Africana Womanist ideology contributes to Afrocentric discourse. Africana womanism fundamental foundation is built on traditional Africana philosophy
and values, and Afrocentric theories:
Lastly, Nah Dove (1998) African Womanism: An Afrocentric Theory, credits Hudson-Weems and other scholars in shaping the Africana womanist model. Dove asserts:
An example of a Male Womanist or Male African Womanist would be Rev. Majadi Baruti of Udja Temple Ministries. Although taking a slightly different approach, Rev. Baruti states that Africana Womanism is one of the historical antecedents for his creation of what he calls "Black Goddess Consciousness".
"The term Black Goddess Consciousness can be defined the spiritual study of and/or acceptance of the divinity, sacredness and holiness of the Divine Afrikan Feminine, the perpetuation of such Consciousness for the salvation of Afrikan people through its Saviour Messiah, The Afrikan Woman." Rev. Majadi Baruti. His Udja Temple Ministries hosts two programs found on Blogtalkradio.com. One called The Roof Garden is co-hosted and produced by Rev. Susan Mitchell, Executive Complement for Udja Temple Ministries. The other simply called Udja Temple Presents: Rev. Majadi Baruti. Rev. Baruti refers to himself as a Black Goddess Evangelist , Pan-Afrikan Nationalist. He and his Co-Host Rev. Mitchell purport that Udja Temple Ministries has the singular purpose of restoring the image and worship of the Afrikan Woman as a Goddess in the spirits of Afrikan People.
, "Since Clenora Hudson-Weems broke new ground with her 1993 book Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, discourse on the place and agenda of Africana women in the women's movement reflects the text's influence. In only six years, this work is in the second printing of its third revised edition. It has been adopted by faculty in several higher education institutions in as far away places as Africa, Brazil, Japan, and the Caribbean Islands. Adoption at national universities includes California State University-Long Beach, Florida A&M, Indiana State University
, Northern Illinois University
, San Francisco State University
, Temple University
, the University of Missouri
, and the University of Utah
to name a few" (p. 163).
, Their Eyes Were Watching God. Hudson-Weems states that the character Janie is a protagonists to name and define herself. Also, a protagonist of family-centeredness (pp. 81–82); Mariama Ba
, a renowned Senegalese writer, So Long a Letter, Ba's attack on polygamous society that subjugates women, and her interests in the rights of Africana women are reflected in her novel. According to Hudson-Weems "the novel does not justify categorizing it as a feminist novel, which the author dedicates the book 'To all women and men of good will,' thereby demonstrating her natural inclination to include men as a very important part of women's lives" (Hudson-Weems, pp. 93–94); Paule Marshall
, a prominent African-Caribbean writer, Praisesong for the Widow, which the character "Reena" bears the historical nuances of so-called shortcomings of the Africana woman in relationship with her male companion. Pauline, the narrator, advocates a solution to the deteriorating relationship between the Africana man and woman (Hudson-Weems, p. 105); Toni Morrison
, Beloved. Hudson-Weems asserts that "From Morrison first novel, The Bluest Eye, to Sula, Song of Solomon, Tar Baby, and finally to her fifth novel, Beloved, the author develops the roles of the male and the female in this collective struggle" (p. 119); and Terry McMillan
, Diasppearing Acts. Hudson-Weems explains that the character Zora Banks is self-naming and self-defining, family-cenered and compatible, flexible with her roles and ambitions, demanding of respect and strong, reverent of elders and authentic, and last bu not least, nurturing and mothering (pp. 133–134).
Africana Womanist literature also consists of Africana family dynamics, Africana women and men—their interrelationship, and experiences within their communities, and religion. For instance: Russell J. Rickford
(2003) Betty Shabazz
: Surviving Malcolm X
: A Journey of Strength from Wife to Widow to Heroine; Ilyasah Shabazz
(2002), Growing Up X
: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X; Sonsyrea Tate (1997) Growing Up in the Nation of Islam
; Yvonne S. Thornton, M.D. (1995), The Ditchdigger's Daughters: A Black Family's Astonishing Success Story; Alex Haley
(1976) Roots: The Saga of an American Family; Coretta Scott King
(1969), My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. In addition to Regina Jennings (2001), Africana Womanism in The Black Panther Party
: A Personal Story, published in The Western Journal of Black Studies. Jennings describes her experiences as a young woman who joined the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California
using the theory of Africana Womanism.
Clenora Hudson-Weems
Clenora Hudson-Weems is an African American author and academic who is currently a Professor of English at the University of Missouri. She coined the term "Africana womanism" in the late 1980s.-External links:*...
intended as an ideology applicable to all women of African descent. It is grounded in African culture and Afrocentrism
Afrocentrism
Afrocentrism is cultural ideology mostly limited to the United States, dedicated to the history of Black people a response to global racist attitudes about African people and their historical contributions by revisiting this history with an African cultural and ideological center...
and focuses on the experiences, struggles, needs, and desires of Africana women of the African diaspora
African diaspora
The African diaspora was the movement of Africans and their descendants to places throughout the world—predominantly to the Americas also to Europe, the Middle East and other places around the globe...
. It distinguishes itself from feminism
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
, or Alice Walker
Alice Walker
Alice Malsenior Walker is an American author, poet, and activist. She has written both fiction and essays about race and gender...
's womanism
Womanism
The word womanism was adapted from Pulitzer Prize winning author Alice Walker's use of the term in her book In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose...
.
The Africana Womanism Society lists eighteen characteristics of the The Africana womanist, including self-naming, self-defining, family-centered, flexible and desiring positive male companionship .
Development
Clenora Hudson-WeemsClenora Hudson-Weems
Clenora Hudson-Weems is an African American author and academic who is currently a Professor of English at the University of Missouri. She coined the term "Africana womanism" in the late 1980s.-External links:*...
, Professor of English, University of Missouri, author of Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, coined the concept Africana Womanism in the late 1980s (Africana is the feminine form of the latin Africanus, meaning Of Africa, and appears to be preferred by the movement over African). Hudson-Weems argues that "Africana Womanism is not an addendum to feminism, Black feminism
Black feminism
Black feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression. The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would...
, African feminism or Alice Walker's womanism" According to Patricia Collins, "Although some Africana women may support the very ideas on which feminism rests, however, many of them reject the term “feminism” because of what they perceive as its association with white women’s cause. They see feminism as operating exclusively within the terms white and American and perceive its opposite as being Black and American." Further many African men and women do not accept the ideology of feminism. According to Hudson-Weems, she states that "there is a general consensus in the Africana community that the feminist movement, by and large, is the White woman's movement for two reason. First, the Africana woman does not see the man as her primary enemy as does the White feminist, who is carrying out an age-old battle with her White male counterpart for subjugating her as his property. Africana men have never had the same institutionalized power to oppress Africana women as White men have had to oppress White women."
Africana Womanism contrasts feminist/womanist ideology and many Africana women (and men) have come to embrace it . Hudson-Weems (1998), Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, explains the development of Africana Womanism:
Africana Womanism is a term I coined and defined in 1987 after nearly two years of publicly debating the importance of self-naming for Africana women. Why the term ‘Africana Womanism’? Upon concluding that the term ‘Black Womanism’ was not quite the terminology to include the total meaning desired for this concept, I decided that ‘Africana Womanism,’ a natural evolution in naming, was the ideal terminology for two basic reasons. The first part of the coinage, Africana, identifies the ethnicity of the woman being considered, and this reference to her ethnicity, establishing her cultural identity, relates directly to her ancestry and land base—Africa. The second part of the term Womanism, recalls Sojourner TruthSojourner TruthSojourner Truth was the self-given name, from 1843 onward, of Isabella Baumfree, an African-American abolitionist and women's rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, New York, but escaped with her infant daughter to freedom in 1826. After going to court to recover her son, she...
's powerful impromptu speech ‘Ain't I a Woman?’, one in which she battles with the dominant alienating forces in her life as a struggling Africana Woman, questioning the accepted idea of womanhood. Without question she is the flip side of the coin, the co-partner in the struggle for her people, one who, unlike the white woman, has received no special privileges in American society.
Africana Womanist ideology contributes to Afrocentric discourse. Africana womanism fundamental foundation is built on traditional Africana philosophy
Africana philosophy
Africana philosophy is an emerging term in the field of philosophy representing the works of professional philosophers who are of African descent as well as others whose works deal with the subject matter of the African diaspora.-What is Africana philosophy?:...
and values, and Afrocentric theories:
Lastly, Nah Dove (1998) African Womanism: An Afrocentric Theory, credits Hudson-Weems and other scholars in shaping the Africana womanist model. Dove asserts:
A concept [Africana Womanism] that has been shaped by the work of women such as Clenora Hudson-Weems, Ifi Amadiume, Mary E. Modupe Kolawole, and others. African womanism may be viewed as fundamental to the continuing development of Afrocentric theory. Africana womanism brings to the forefront the role of African mothers as leaders in the struggle to regain, reconstruct, and create a cultural integrity that espouses the ancient Maatic principles of reciprocity, balance, harmony, justice, truth, righteousness, order, and so forth. (p. 535)
Values
The Africana Womanist concept was best exemplified in Brenda Verner’s (1994) article, The Power and Glory of Africana Womanism:
Africana Womanism in essence says: We love men. We like being women. We love children. We like being mothers. We value life. We have faith in God and the Bible. We want families and harmonious relationships. We are not at war with our men seeking money, power and influence through confrontation. Our history is unique. We are the inheritors of African-American women's history, and as such we shall not redefine ourselves nor that history to meet some politically correct image of a popular culture movement, which demands the right to speak for and redefine the morals and mores of all racial, cultural and ethnic groups. Nor shall we allow the history to be "shanghied" to legitimatize the "global political agenda" of others. We reject the status of victim. Indeed, we are victors, Sisters in Charge of our own destiny. We are Africana culture-keepers: Our primary obligation is to the progress of our cultural way of life through the stability of family and the commitment to community. The practice of cultural womanism is not limited to Africana women. Italian, Japanese, Hispanic, East Indian, Arab, Jewish women, etc., all utilize this approach to decision-making, and know the value of maintaining indigenous cultural autonomy. The rite of passing generation-to-generation knowledge free from outside manipulation, coercion or intimidation insures traditional integrity, which fosters a climate of cultural security. Traditional cultures should not be obligated to bow to redefinitions foisted upon them by elitist entities that gain their authority via the drive of well-organized "media hype."
Male-womanist
Africana men can embrace a Africana womanist approach. According to Tolagbe Ogunlege (1998), “Referring to a man as a male-womanist is not an anomaly or rarity, and bestowing gender-specific title on individuals of the opposite sex has been practiced by Africana peoples for millennia. For example, among the Yoruba, an exceptional woman who has made significant contributions to the educational, socioeconomic, and/or spiritual growth and development of her family and community is referred to as a man-woman or obinrin bi okunrin. Ogunlege further explains that among the Lebou people of Senegal, a man who governs according to ancient customs is referred to as the "Mother of the Country".An example of a Male Womanist or Male African Womanist would be Rev. Majadi Baruti of Udja Temple Ministries. Although taking a slightly different approach, Rev. Baruti states that Africana Womanism is one of the historical antecedents for his creation of what he calls "Black Goddess Consciousness".
"The term Black Goddess Consciousness can be defined the spiritual study of and/or acceptance of the divinity, sacredness and holiness of the Divine Afrikan Feminine, the perpetuation of such Consciousness for the salvation of Afrikan people through its Saviour Messiah, The Afrikan Woman." Rev. Majadi Baruti. His Udja Temple Ministries hosts two programs found on Blogtalkradio.com. One called The Roof Garden is co-hosted and produced by Rev. Susan Mitchell, Executive Complement for Udja Temple Ministries. The other simply called Udja Temple Presents: Rev. Majadi Baruti. Rev. Baruti refers to himself as a Black Goddess Evangelist , Pan-Afrikan Nationalist. He and his Co-Host Rev. Mitchell purport that Udja Temple Ministries has the singular purpose of restoring the image and worship of the Afrikan Woman as a Goddess in the spirits of Afrikan People.
In education
The Africana Womanist concept was adopted by many faculty in higher education. According to Daphne W. Ntiri (2001), Associate Professor of Social Science, Wayne State UniversityWayne State University
Wayne State University is a public research university located in Detroit, Michigan, United States, in the city's Midtown Cultural Center Historic District. Founded in 1868, WSU consists of 13 schools and colleges offering more than 400 major subject areas to over 32,000 graduate and...
, "Since Clenora Hudson-Weems broke new ground with her 1993 book Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, discourse on the place and agenda of Africana women in the women's movement reflects the text's influence. In only six years, this work is in the second printing of its third revised edition. It has been adopted by faculty in several higher education institutions in as far away places as Africa, Brazil, Japan, and the Caribbean Islands. Adoption at national universities includes California State University-Long Beach, Florida A&M, Indiana State University
Indiana State University
Indiana State University is a public university located in Terre Haute, Indiana, United States.The Princeton Review has named Indiana State as one of the "Best in the Midwest" seven years running, and the College of Education's Graduate Program was recently named as a 'Top 100' by U.S...
, Northern Illinois University
Northern Illinois University
Northern Illinois University is a state university and research institution located in DeKalb, Illinois, with satellite centers in Hoffman Estates, Naperville, Rockford, and Oregon. It was originally founded as Northern Illinois State Normal School on May 22, 1895 by Illinois Governor John P...
, San Francisco State University
San Francisco State University
San Francisco State University is a public university located in San Francisco, California. As part of the 23-campus California State University system, the university offers over 100 areas of study from nine academic colleges...
, Temple University
Temple University
Temple University is a comprehensive public research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Originally founded in 1884 by Dr. Russell Conwell, Temple University is among the nation's largest providers of professional education and prepares the largest body of professional...
, the University of Missouri
University of Missouri
The University of Missouri System is a state university system providing centralized administration for four universities, a health care system, an extension program, five research and technology parks, and a publishing press. More than 64,000 students are currently enrolled at its four campuses...
, and the University of Utah
University of Utah
The University of Utah, also known as the U or the U of U, is a public, coeducational research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret, making it Utah's oldest...
to name a few" (p. 163).
Examples in literature
Five Africana Womanist novels: Zora Neale HurstonZora Neale Hurston
Zora Neale Hurston was an American folklorist, anthropologist, and author during the time of the Harlem Renaissance...
, Their Eyes Were Watching God. Hudson-Weems states that the character Janie is a protagonists to name and define herself. Also, a protagonist of family-centeredness (pp. 81–82); Mariama Ba
Mariama Ba
Mariama Bâ was a Senegalese author and feminist, who wrote in French. Born in Dakar, she was raised a Muslim, but at an early age came to criticise what she perceived as inequalities between the sexes resulting from [African] traditions...
, a renowned Senegalese writer, So Long a Letter, Ba's attack on polygamous society that subjugates women, and her interests in the rights of Africana women are reflected in her novel. According to Hudson-Weems "the novel does not justify categorizing it as a feminist novel, which the author dedicates the book 'To all women and men of good will,' thereby demonstrating her natural inclination to include men as a very important part of women's lives" (Hudson-Weems, pp. 93–94); Paule Marshall
Paule Marshall
Paule Marshall is an American author. She was born Valenza Pauline Burke in Brooklyn to Barbadian parents and educated at Girls High School, Brooklyn College and Hunter College . Early in her career, she wrote poetry, but later returned to prose...
, a prominent African-Caribbean writer, Praisesong for the Widow, which the character "Reena" bears the historical nuances of so-called shortcomings of the Africana woman in relationship with her male companion. Pauline, the narrator, advocates a solution to the deteriorating relationship between the Africana man and woman (Hudson-Weems, p. 105); Toni Morrison
Toni Morrison
Toni Morrison is a Nobel Prize and Pulitzer Prize-winning American novelist, editor, and professor. Her novels are known for their epic themes, vivid dialogue, and richly detailed characters. Among her best known novels are The Bluest Eye, Song of Solomon and Beloved...
, Beloved. Hudson-Weems asserts that "From Morrison first novel, The Bluest Eye, to Sula, Song of Solomon, Tar Baby, and finally to her fifth novel, Beloved, the author develops the roles of the male and the female in this collective struggle" (p. 119); and Terry McMillan
Terry McMillan
Terry McMillan is an American author. Her interest in books comes from working at a library when she was sixteen. She received her BA in journalism in 1986 at University of California, Berkeley. Her work is characterized by strong female protagonists.Her first book, Mama, was published in 1987...
, Diasppearing Acts. Hudson-Weems explains that the character Zora Banks is self-naming and self-defining, family-cenered and compatible, flexible with her roles and ambitions, demanding of respect and strong, reverent of elders and authentic, and last bu not least, nurturing and mothering (pp. 133–134).
Africana Womanist literature also consists of Africana family dynamics, Africana women and men—their interrelationship, and experiences within their communities, and religion. For instance: Russell J. Rickford
Russell J. Rickford
Russell John Rickford is an American scholar and author. An assistant professor in the History Department at Dartmouth College, he has written the only in-depth biography on Betty Shabazz...
(2003) Betty Shabazz
Betty Shabazz
Betty Shabazz , born Betty Dean Sanders and also known as Betty X, was an American educator and civil rights advocate. She was the wife of Malcolm X....
: Surviving Malcolm X
Malcolm X
Malcolm X , born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz , was an African American Muslim minister and human rights activist. To his admirers he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its...
: A Journey of Strength from Wife to Widow to Heroine; Ilyasah Shabazz
Ilyasah Shabazz
Ilyasah Shabazz is the third daughter of Malcolm X and Betty Shabazz. She is the author of a memoir, Growing Up X, and a motivational speaker.-Early life:Shabazz was born in Queens, New York, on July 22, 1962...
(2002), Growing Up X
Growing Up X
Growing Up X: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X is a 2002 book by Ilyasah Shabazz, the third daughter of Malcolm X and Betty Shabazz. Shabazz wrote the book with Kim McLarin....
: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X; Sonsyrea Tate (1997) Growing Up in the Nation of Islam
Nation of Islam
The Nation of Islam is a mainly African-American new religious movement founded in Detroit, Michigan by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad in July 1930 to improve the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of African-Americans in the United States of America. The movement teaches black pride and...
; Yvonne S. Thornton, M.D. (1995), The Ditchdigger's Daughters: A Black Family's Astonishing Success Story; Alex Haley
Alex Haley
Alexander Murray Palmer Haley was an African-American writer. He is best known as the author of Roots: The Saga of an American Family and the coauthor of The Autobiography of Malcolm X.-Early life:...
(1976) Roots: The Saga of an American Family; Coretta Scott King
Coretta Scott King
Coretta Scott King was an American author, activist, and civil rights leader. The widow of Martin Luther King, Jr., Coretta Scott King helped lead the African-American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.Mrs...
(1969), My Life with Martin Luther King, Jr. In addition to Regina Jennings (2001), Africana Womanism in The Black Panther Party
Black Panther Party
The Black Panther Party wasan African-American revolutionary leftist organization. It was active in the United States from 1966 until 1982....
: A Personal Story, published in The Western Journal of Black Studies. Jennings describes her experiences as a young woman who joined the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California
Oakland, California
Oakland is a major West Coast port city on San Francisco Bay in the U.S. state of California. It is the eighth-largest city in the state with a 2010 population of 390,724...
using the theory of Africana Womanism.
Further reading
- "Africana Womanism: The Flip Side of a Coin," in The Western Journal of Black Studies (2001).
- "Africana Womanism: An Overview," in Out of the Revolution: The Development of Africana Studies Delores Aldridge and Carlene Young, Editors, Lexington Books, 2000, pp. 205–217.
- "Africana Womanism: An Historical, Global Perspective for Women of African Descent," Call and Response: The Riverside Anthology of the African American Literary Tradition Patricia Liggins Hill, General Editor, Houghton Mifflin, 1998, pp. 1811–1815.
- "Africana Womanism, Black Feminism, African Feminism, Womanism," in Sisterhood, Feminisms and Power Obioma Nneameka, Editor, New Jersey: African World Press, 1998, pp. 149–162.
- "Self-Naming and Self-Defining: An Agenda for Survival," in Sisterhood, Feminisms and Power Obioma Nneameka, Editor, New Jersey: African World Press, 1998, pp. 449–452.
- "Africana Womanism and the Critical Need for Africana Theory and Thought," in The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 21, No. 2, Summer 1997, pp. 79–84.
- "Cultural and Agenda Conflicts in Academia: Crtitical Issues for Africana Women's Studies," in The Western Journal of Black Studies Vol. 13, No. 4, Winter 1989, pp. 185–189.
- "The Tripartite Plight of African-American Women as Reflected in the Novels of Hurston and Walker," in Journal of Black Studies Vol. 20, No. 2, December 1989, pp. 192–207.
- "Africana Womanism, Black Feminism, African Feminism, Womanism," in Black Studies: From the Pyramids to Pan Africanism and Beyond William Nelson, Jr., Editor, McGraw Hill, 2001.
- "Africana Womanism: Entering the New Millennium," in State of the Race, Creating Our 21st Century: Where Do We Go From Here Jemadari Kamara and T. Menelik Van Der Meer, Editors, University of MA-Boston Press, 2001.
- "Come colour my rainbow: Themes of Africana womanism in the poetic vision of Audrey Kathryn Bullett, Ronald J. Stephens, Maureen Keaveny, Venetria K. Patton. Journal of Black Studies Thousand Oaks: Mar 2002. Vol. 32, Iss. 4; p. 464 (16 pages)
- "Common bonds from Africa to the U.S.: Africana womanist literary analysis, Betty Taylor Thompson. Western Journal of Black Studies Pullman: Fall 2001. Vol. 25, Iss. 3: p. 177 (8 pages)
- "Lucy Terry Prince: The cultural and literary legacy of Africana womanism, April Langley. Western Journal of Black Studies Pullman: Fall 2001. Vol. 25, Iss. 3; p. 153 (10 pages)
- "Theorizing difference within black feminist thought: The dilemma of sexism in black communities, Austin, Algernon. Race, Gender & Class New Orleans: Jul 31, 1999. Vol. 6, Iss.3; pg. 52
External links
- Hudson-Weems, C., http://web.missouri.edu/~hudsonweemsc/
- Millions More Movement, http://www.millionsmoremovement.com/index_flash.html
- Million Woman March, http://www.mwmsistahs.org/
- National Council of Negro Women, http://www.ncnw.org/
- Ntiri, D. W., http://www.is.wayne.edu/dntiri/welcome.htm