Al-Ma'mun
Encyclopedia
Abū Jaʿfar Abdullāh al-Māʾmūn ibn Harūn (also spelled Almamon, Al-Maymun and el-Mâmoûn, Arabic ابوجعفر عبدالله المأمون) (September 13, 786 – August 9, 833) (المأمون) was an Abbasid
caliph
who reigned from 813
until his death in 833. He succeeded his brother al-Amin
.
, father of al-Ma'mun and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him, and al-Ma'mun serve as governor of Khurasan
and as caliph after the death of al-Amin. Al-Ma'mun was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian
woman while al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809
, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Ma'mun's moves toward independence, al-Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a civil war in which al-Ma'mun's newly recruited Khurasani troops, led by Tahir bin Husain (d. 822), defeated al-Amin's armies and laid siege to Baghdad. In 813
, al-Amin was beheaded, and al-Ma'mun recognized as caliph throughout the empire.
during the first several years of al-Ma'mun's reign, while the caliph was in Merv
. On November 13, 815, Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (Al-Dibaj)
claimed the Caliphate for himself in Mecca
. He was defeated and he quickly abdicated asserting that he had only become caliph on news that al-Ma'mun had died. Lawlessness in Baghdad
led to the formation of neighborhood watches. When in A.H. 201 (817
AD) al-Ma'mun named Imam Reza the Eighth descendant of Muhammad
his heir. This was not accepted by people in Baghdad. This was a political move by al-Ma'mun since most of Persia was sympathetic to the Hashemites. Al-Ma'mun's opponents in Baghdad gave allegiance to Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi
. His forces fought Kharijites, al-Ma'mun's [noun omitted?], and arrested the neighbourhood watch commander Sahl ibn Salamah.
Imam Reza informed al-Ma'mun of happenings in Baghdad and al-Ma'mun set out for the City of Peace on the day the fast ended, April 12, 818. At Tus, he stopped to visit his father's grave. On the last day of Safar in 203 AH, Imam Reza died. Imam Reza was buried beside the caliph's grave. Following the death of Imam Reza a great revolt took place in Khurasan, Persia. Al-Ma’mun wept and mourn for Imam Reza and tried to show himself innocent of the crime. But for all he did, he could not get himself acquitted and prove his innocence. Al-Ma'mun wrote to Hasan ibn Sahl, his governor in Iraq, the Hijaz, etc. informing him of his grief on the Imam's death. The governor fell ill and al-Ma'mun appointed Dinar ibn Abdallah to replace him. Some of Ibn al-Mahdi's commanders deserted him, and he died.
states that al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad on August 11, 819 (v. 32, p. 95). He wore green and had others do so. Informed that compliance with this command was despite popular opposition to the colour, on August 18 he reverted to traditional Abbasid black. While Baghdad
became peaceful, there were disturbances elsewhere. In A.H. 210 (825-826) Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani secured Egypt
for al-Ma'mun freeing Alexandria
from Andalusian
s and quelling unrest. The Andalusians moved to Crete
where al-Tabari records their descendants were still living in his day (see Abo Hafs Omer Al-Baloty). Abdallah returned to Baghdad in 211 Hijri or (826-827 C.E.) bringing defeated rebels with him.
Also, in 210 Hijri or the year 825-826 C.E. there was an uprising in Qum sparked by complaints about taxes. After it was quashed, the tax assessment was set significantly higher. In 212 Hijri or 827-828 C.E., there was an uprising in Yemen
. In 214 (829-830) Abu al-Razi who had captured one Yemeni rebel was killed by another. Egypt
continued to be unquiet. Sindh
was rebellious. In 216 (831-832) Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin
. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.
raids into Anatolia
replied in kind by Byzantine
raids that "stole" Christian subjects of the Abbasid Caliphate and forcibly settled them into the Anatolian farmlands to increase the population and hence provide more farmers and more soldiers. The situation changed however with the rise to power of Michael II
in 820
AD. Forced to deal with the rebel Thomas the Slav
, Michael had few troops to spare against a small Andalusian invasion of 40 ships and 10,000 men against Crete
, which fell in 824
AD. A Byzantine counter offensive in 826
AD failed miserably. Worse still was the invasion of Sicily
in 827
by Berbers of Tunis
. Even so, Byzantine
resistance in Sicily
was fierce and not without success whilst the Arabs became quickly plagued by internal squabbles. That year, the Arabs were expelled from Sicily
but they were to return.
In 829
, Michael II
died and was succeeded by his son Theophilos
. Theophilos experienced mixed success against his Arab
opponents. In 830
AD the Arabs returned to Sicily
and after a year-long siege took Palermo
from their Christian opponents and for the next 200 years they were to remain there to complete their conquest, which was never short of Christian counters.The Caliph Al-Ma'mun meanwhile launched an invasion of Anatolia
in 830
AD. Al-Ma'mun triumphed and a number of Byzantine
forts were taken; he spared the surrendering Byzantines. Theophilos
did not relent and in 831
captured Tarsus
from the Muslims.The next year, learning Byzantines had killed some sixteen hundred people, Al-Ma'mun returned. This time some thirty forts fell to the Caliphate forces, with two Byzantine defeats in Cappadocia
.
Theophilos
wrote to Al-Ma'mun. The Caliph replied that he carefully considered the Byzantine ruler's letter, noticed it blended suggestions of peace and trade with threats of war and offered Theophilos
the options of acknowledging divine unity, paying tax or fighting. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign and died on the way while leading an expedition in Sardis
.
Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantine Greeks
is marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek
philosophy
and science
. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad
, whom he treated magnificently and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire
to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. It is said that, had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest
".
, two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree. The crater Almanon
on the Moon
is named in recognition of his contributions to astronomy.
Al-Ma'mun's record as an administrator is also marked by his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. The Bayt al-Hikma, or House of Wisdom
, was established during his reign. The ulama
emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the mihna
, which was initiated in 833, only four months before he died.
The 'mihna', is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions only in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath. The casualties of 'Abbasid inquisition would not approach a fraction of those executed in Europe under similar circumstances. This is because the people who were subject to the mihna were traditionalist scholars whose social influence and intellectual quality was uncommonly high. Al-Ma'mun introduced the mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and in consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the createdness of the Qur'an, if the interrogatee stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.
The controversy over the mihna was exacerbated by al-Ma'mun's sympathy for Mu'tazili
theology and other controversial views. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian
thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning. This opposed the traditionalist and literalist position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal
and others, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the Qur'an
and the Hadith
. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than coeternal with God, a belief that was shared by the Jahmites and parts of Shi'a, among others, but contradicted the traditionalist-Sunni opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were coeternal. The fact that the Mu'tazili school had its foundations in the paganism of Greece
further disenchanted a majority of Islamic clerics.
During his reign, alchemy
greatly developed and the pioneers of the science were Jabir Ibn Hayyan and his student Yusuf Lukwa was patronized by Al-Ma'mun, although he was unsuccessful in his attempts regarding the transmutation gold
, his methods greatly led to the patronization of Pharmaceuticals compounds.
Although al-Mahdi
had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy
, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult to enforce as the ulema became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil
abandoned it in 848. The failure of the mihna seriously damaged Caliphal authority and ruined the reputation of the office for succeeding caliphs. The caliph would lose much of his religious authority to the opinion of the ulema as a result of the mihna.
The ulema and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali
legal school, became famous for his opposition to the mihna. Al-Ma'mun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the Bayt al-Hikma became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance
.
Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan
by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Ma'mun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty
became a threat as al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.
The shakiriya, which were to trigger the movement of the capital from Baghdad
to Samarra
during al-Mu'tasim
's reign, were raised in al-Ma'mun's time. The shakiriya were military units from Central Asia
and North Africa
, hired, complete with their commanders, to serve under the Caliph.
Al-Ma'mun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign, who had not borne him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Ma'mun was able to select one himself; the judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Ma'mun's experience, no further Abbasid caliph
s were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem.
Al-Ma'mun, unable to have a child due to his marital circumstances, and in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam
, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture as empty; indeed, ar-Rida died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by al-'Abbas.
The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during the reign of al-Ma'mun. Hindu
rebellions in Sindh
were put down, and most of Afghanistan
was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul
. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan
.
Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt
in 832
, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza
looking for knowledge and treasure. He entered the pyramid by tunneling into the Great Pyramid near where tradition located the original entrance.
Al-Ma'mun died near Tarsus
. The city's major mosque (Tarsus Grand Mosque
), contains a tomb reported to be his. He was succeeded not by his son, Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun
, but by his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim
.
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids , was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region....
caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
who reigned from 813
813
Year 813 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar."813" may also refer to a duology of novels by Maurice Leblanc, starring his gentleman thief Arsène Lupin.- Byzantine Empire :...
until his death in 833. He succeeded his brother al-Amin
Al-Amin
Muhammad ibn Harun al-Amin , Abbasid Caliph. He succeeded his father, Harun al-Rashid in 809 and ruled until he was killed in 813.-Caliph:...
.
Abbasid Civil War
In 802 Harun al-RashidHarun al-Rashid
Hārūn al-Rashīd was the fifth Arab Abbasid Caliph in Iraq. He was born in Rey, Iran, close to modern Tehran. His birth date remains a point of discussion, though, as various sources give the dates from 763 to 766)....
, father of al-Ma'mun and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him, and al-Ma'mun serve as governor of Khurasan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
and as caliph after the death of al-Amin. Al-Ma'mun was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian
Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of...
woman while al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809
809
Year 809 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Emperor Saga succeeds Emperor Heizei as emperor of Japan.* Nagabhatta is defeated in India.- Births :* date unknown...
, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Ma'mun's moves toward independence, al-Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a civil war in which al-Ma'mun's newly recruited Khurasani troops, led by Tahir bin Husain (d. 822), defeated al-Amin's armies and laid siege to Baghdad. In 813
813
Year 813 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar."813" may also refer to a duology of novels by Maurice Leblanc, starring his gentleman thief Arsène Lupin.- Byzantine Empire :...
, al-Amin was beheaded, and al-Ma'mun recognized as caliph throughout the empire.
Internal Strife
There were disturbances in IraqIraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
during the first several years of al-Ma'mun's reign, while the caliph was in Merv
Merv
Merv , formerly Achaemenid Satrapy of Margiana, and later Alexandria and Antiochia in Margiana , was a major oasis-city in Central Asia, on the historical Silk Road, located near today's Mary in Turkmenistan. Several cities have existed on this site, which is significant for the interchange of...
. On November 13, 815, Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (Al-Dibaj)
Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (Al-Dibaj)
Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq , the younger full brother of Musa al-Kadhim, appeared in Mecca in the year 200 A.H. / 815 C.E. claiming that he was the Awaited Mahdi. He believed in a Zaydl Shia type of Imamate and declared himself as the Caliph of the Muslims and took the oath of allegiance from...
claimed the Caliphate for himself in Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
. He was defeated and he quickly abdicated asserting that he had only become caliph on news that al-Ma'mun had died. Lawlessness in Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
led to the formation of neighborhood watches. When in A.H. 201 (817
817
Year 817 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Louis the Pious divides his empire among his sons; Louis the German becomes king of East Francia, Lothar I becomes co-emperor.* The Bulgarian siege of Constantinople ends.- Religion :* The Council of Aachen is...
AD) al-Ma'mun named Imam Reza the Eighth descendant of Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
his heir. This was not accepted by people in Baghdad. This was a political move by al-Ma'mun since most of Persia was sympathetic to the Hashemites. Al-Ma'mun's opponents in Baghdad gave allegiance to Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi
Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi
Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi was an Abbasid prince, singer, composer and poet. He was the son of the third Abbasid caliph Al-Mahdi. He was not a full brother of Al-Mahdi's sons Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid, since his mother was not Al-Khayzuran but rather an Afro Iranian princess named Shikla or Shakla...
. His forces fought Kharijites, al-Ma'mun's [noun omitted?], and arrested the neighbourhood watch commander Sahl ibn Salamah.
Imam Reza informed al-Ma'mun of happenings in Baghdad and al-Ma'mun set out for the City of Peace on the day the fast ended, April 12, 818. At Tus, he stopped to visit his father's grave. On the last day of Safar in 203 AH, Imam Reza died. Imam Reza was buried beside the caliph's grave. Following the death of Imam Reza a great revolt took place in Khurasan, Persia. Al-Ma’mun wept and mourn for Imam Reza and tried to show himself innocent of the crime. But for all he did, he could not get himself acquitted and prove his innocence. Al-Ma'mun wrote to Hasan ibn Sahl, his governor in Iraq, the Hijaz, etc. informing him of his grief on the Imam's death. The governor fell ill and al-Ma'mun appointed Dinar ibn Abdallah to replace him. Some of Ibn al-Mahdi's commanders deserted him, and he died.
After Arrival in Baghdad
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-TabariMuhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari was a prominent and influential Sunni scholar and exegete of the Qur'an from Persia...
states that al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad on August 11, 819 (v. 32, p. 95). He wore green and had others do so. Informed that compliance with this command was despite popular opposition to the colour, on August 18 he reverted to traditional Abbasid black. While Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
became peaceful, there were disturbances elsewhere. In A.H. 210 (825-826) Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani secured Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
for al-Ma'mun freeing Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
from Andalusian
Andalusian
The adjective Andalusian can refer to:*Andalusia, a region in Spain*Al-Andalus, a historical state on the Iberian Peninsula*Andalusian people, an ethnic group or nation in Spain centered in the Andalusia region...
s and quelling unrest. The Andalusians moved to Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
where al-Tabari records their descendants were still living in his day (see Abo Hafs Omer Al-Baloty). Abdallah returned to Baghdad in 211 Hijri or (826-827 C.E.) bringing defeated rebels with him.
Also, in 210 Hijri or the year 825-826 C.E. there was an uprising in Qum sparked by complaints about taxes. After it was quashed, the tax assessment was set significantly higher. In 212 Hijri or 827-828 C.E., there was an uprising in Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
. In 214 (829-830) Abu al-Razi who had captured one Yemeni rebel was killed by another. Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
continued to be unquiet. Sindh
Sindh
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
was rebellious. In 216 (831-832) Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin
Babak Khorramdin
Bābak Khorram-Din was one of the main Persian revolutionary leaders of the Iranian Khorram-Dinān , which was a local freedom movement fighting the Abbasid Caliphate. Khorramdin appears to be a compound analogous to dorustdin and Behdin "Good Religion" , and are considered an offshoot of...
. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.
Wars with Byzantine Greeks
By the time Al-Ma'mun became Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantines were settled down into border skirmishing, with ArabArab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
raids into Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
replied in kind by Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
raids that "stole" Christian subjects of the Abbasid Caliphate and forcibly settled them into the Anatolian farmlands to increase the population and hence provide more farmers and more soldiers. The situation changed however with the rise to power of Michael II
Michael II
Michael II , surnamed the Amorian or the Stammerer , reigned as Byzantine emperor from December 820 to his death on 2 October 829, and the first ruler of the Phrygian or Amorian dynasty....
in 820
820
Year 820 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Tahir, the son of a slave, is rewarded with the governorship of Khurasan for supporting the caliphate...
AD. Forced to deal with the rebel Thomas the Slav
Thomas the Slav
Thomas the Slav was a 9th-century Byzantine military commander, most notable for leading a wide-scale revolt against Emperor Michael II the Amorian in 820–823....
, Michael had few troops to spare against a small Andalusian invasion of 40 ships and 10,000 men against Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
, which fell in 824
824
Year 824 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Third Battle of Roncevaux Pass: The Basques and Banu Qasi defeat counts Eblo and Aznar, Frankish vassals....
AD. A Byzantine counter offensive in 826
826
Year 826 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Religion :* June 24 – The Danish king Harald Klak accepts Christianity.- Deaths :...
AD failed miserably. Worse still was the invasion of Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
in 827
827
Year 827 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Beginning of the invasion of Sicily by the Aghlabid dynasty of Ifriqiya . The campaign in the island against Byzantium will take 51 years...
by Berbers of Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
. Even so, Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
resistance in Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
was fierce and not without success whilst the Arabs became quickly plagued by internal squabbles. That year, the Arabs were expelled from Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
but they were to return.
In 829
829
Year 829 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Egbert of Wessex conquers Mercia and is recognized as Bretwalda.* The Saracens ravage the coast of Dalmatia....
, Michael II
Michael II
Michael II , surnamed the Amorian or the Stammerer , reigned as Byzantine emperor from December 820 to his death on 2 October 829, and the first ruler of the Phrygian or Amorian dynasty....
died and was succeeded by his son Theophilos
Theophilos (emperor)
Theophilos was the Byzantine emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of the Phrygian dynasty, and the last emperor supporting iconoclasm...
. Theophilos experienced mixed success against his Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
opponents. In 830
830
Year 830 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.-Africa:* Creation of the Ad-dimnah hospital in al-Qayrawan by the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat Allah I.- Europe :...
AD the Arabs returned to Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
and after a year-long siege took Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
from their Christian opponents and for the next 200 years they were to remain there to complete their conquest, which was never short of Christian counters.The Caliph Al-Ma'mun meanwhile launched an invasion of Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
in 830
830
Year 830 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.-Africa:* Creation of the Ad-dimnah hospital in al-Qayrawan by the Aghlabid ruler Ziyadat Allah I.- Europe :...
AD. Al-Ma'mun triumphed and a number of Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
forts were taken; he spared the surrendering Byzantines. Theophilos
Theophilos (emperor)
Theophilos was the Byzantine emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of the Phrygian dynasty, and the last emperor supporting iconoclasm...
did not relent and in 831
831
Year 831 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* In this year, an Uyghur Turk sues the son of a Chinese Tang Dynasty grand general who had failed to repay a debt of 11 million government-issued copper coins...
captured Tarsus
Tarsus (city)
Tarsus is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin Metropolitan Area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of 2.75 million...
from the Muslims.The next year, learning Byzantines had killed some sixteen hundred people, Al-Ma'mun returned. This time some thirty forts fell to the Caliphate forces, with two Byzantine defeats in Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
.
Theophilos
Theophilos (emperor)
Theophilos was the Byzantine emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of the Phrygian dynasty, and the last emperor supporting iconoclasm...
wrote to Al-Ma'mun. The Caliph replied that he carefully considered the Byzantine ruler's letter, noticed it blended suggestions of peace and trade with threats of war and offered Theophilos
Theophilos (emperor)
Theophilos was the Byzantine emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of the Phrygian dynasty, and the last emperor supporting iconoclasm...
the options of acknowledging divine unity, paying tax or fighting. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign and died on the way while leading an expedition in Sardis
Sardis
Sardis or Sardes was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart in Turkey's Manisa Province...
.
Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantine Greeks
Byzantine Greeks
Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines is a conventional term used by modern historians to refer to the medieval Greek or Hellenised citizens of the Byzantine Empire, centered mainly in Constantinople, the southern Balkans, the Greek islands, Asia Minor , Cyprus and the large urban centres of the Near East...
is marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
and science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
, whom he treated magnificently and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. It is said that, had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest
Almagest
The Almagest is a 2nd-century mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths. Written in Greek by Claudius Ptolemy, a Roman era scholar of Egypt,...
".
Al-Ma'mun's Reign
Al-Ma'mun conducted, in the plains of MesopotamiaMesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
, two astronomical operations intended to determine the value of a terrestrial degree. The crater Almanon
Almanon (crater)
Almanon, named after Abbasid Caliph Al Ma'mun, is a lunar impact crater that lies in the rugged highlands in the south-central region of the Moon. It is located to the south-southeast of Abulfeda, and to the north-northeast of the smaller crater Geber...
on the Moon
Moon
The Moon is Earth's only known natural satellite,There are a number of near-Earth asteroids including 3753 Cruithne that are co-orbital with Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term . These are quasi-satellites and not true moons. For more...
is named in recognition of his contributions to astronomy.
Al-Ma'mun's record as an administrator is also marked by his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. The Bayt al-Hikma, or House of Wisdom
House of Wisdom
The House of Wisdom was a library and translation institute established in Abbassid-era Baghdad, Iraq. It was a key institution in the Translation Movement and considered to have been a major intellectual centre during the Islamic Golden Age...
, was established during his reign. The ulama
Ulama
-In Islam:* Ulema, also transliterated "ulama", a community of legal scholars of Islam and its laws . See:**Nahdlatul Ulama **Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama **Jamiatul Ulama Transvaal**Jamiat ul-Ulama -Other:...
emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the mihna
Mihna
The Mihna refers to a test instituted by the Abassid Caliph al-Ma'mun in 218 AH/833 AD, in which religious scholars were required to answer whether or not the Qu'ran was a created text. Those who answered in the affirmative were retained; those who answered in the negative were dismissed...
, which was initiated in 833, only four months before he died.
The 'mihna', is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions only in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath. The casualties of 'Abbasid inquisition would not approach a fraction of those executed in Europe under similar circumstances. This is because the people who were subject to the mihna were traditionalist scholars whose social influence and intellectual quality was uncommonly high. Al-Ma'mun introduced the mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and in consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the createdness of the Qur'an, if the interrogatee stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.
The controversy over the mihna was exacerbated by al-Ma'mun's sympathy for Mu'tazili
Mu'tazili
' is an Islamic school of speculative theology that flourished in the cities of Basra and Baghdad, both in present-day Iraq, during the 8th–10th centuries. The adherents of the Mu'tazili school are best known for their having asserted that, because of the perfect unity and eternal nature of God,...
theology and other controversial views. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning. This opposed the traditionalist and literalist position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal Abu `Abd Allah al-Shaybani was an important Muslim scholar and theologian. He is considered the founder of the Hanbali school of fiqh...
and others, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
and the Hadith
Hadith
The term Hadīth is used to denote a saying or an act or tacit approval or criticism ascribed either validly or invalidly to the Islamic prophet Muhammad....
. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than coeternal with God, a belief that was shared by the Jahmites and parts of Shi'a, among others, but contradicted the traditionalist-Sunni opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were coeternal. The fact that the Mu'tazili school had its foundations in the paganism of Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
further disenchanted a majority of Islamic clerics.
During his reign, alchemy
Alchemy
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners’ claims to profound powers were known from antiquity. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied; these include the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone possessing powers including the capability of turning base...
greatly developed and the pioneers of the science were Jabir Ibn Hayyan and his student Yusuf Lukwa was patronized by Al-Ma'mun, although he was unsuccessful in his attempts regarding the transmutation gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
, his methods greatly led to the patronization of Pharmaceuticals compounds.
Although al-Mahdi
Al-Mahdi
Muhammad ibn Mansur al-Mahdi , was the third Abbasid Caliph who reigned from 158 AH to 169 AH . He succeeded his father, al-Mansur....
had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult to enforce as the ulema became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil
Al-Mutawakkil
Al-Mutawakkil ʻAlā Allāh Jaʻfar ibn al-Muʻtasim was an Abbasid caliph who reigned in Samarra from 847 until 861...
abandoned it in 848. The failure of the mihna seriously damaged Caliphal authority and ruined the reputation of the office for succeeding caliphs. The caliph would lose much of his religious authority to the opinion of the ulema as a result of the mihna.
The ulema and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali
Hanbali
The Hanbali school is one the schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam. The jurisprudence school traces back to Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal but was institutionalized by his students. Hanbali jurisprudence is considered very strict and conservative, especially regarding questions of dogma...
legal school, became famous for his opposition to the mihna. Al-Ma'mun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the Bayt al-Hikma became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
.
Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Ma'mun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty
Tahirid dynasty
The Tahirid Dynasty, was a Persian dynasty that governed from 820 to 872 over the northeastern part of Greater Iran, in the region of Khorasan . The dynasty was founded by Tahir ibn Husayn, a leading general in the service of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun...
became a threat as al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.
The shakiriya, which were to trigger the movement of the capital from Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
to Samarra
Samarra
Sāmarrā is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Salah ad-Din Governorate, north of Baghdad and, in 2003, had an estimated population of 348,700....
during al-Mu'tasim
Al-Mu'tasim
Abu Ishaq 'Abbas al-Mu'tasim ibn Harun was an Abbasid caliph . He succeeded his half-brother al-Ma'mun...
's reign, were raised in al-Ma'mun's time. The shakiriya were military units from Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
and North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
, hired, complete with their commanders, to serve under the Caliph.
Al-Ma'mun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign, who had not borne him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Ma'mun was able to select one himself; the judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Ma'mun's experience, no further Abbasid caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
s were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem.
Al-Ma'mun, unable to have a child due to his marital circumstances, and in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture as empty; indeed, ar-Rida died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by al-'Abbas.
The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during the reign of al-Ma'mun. Hindu
Hindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
rebellions in Sindh
Sindh
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
were put down, and most of Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul
Kabul
Kabul , spelt Caubul in some classic literatures, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. It is also the capital of the Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan...
. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan
Turkestan
Turkestan, spelled also as Turkistan, literally means "Land of the Turks".The term Turkestan is of Persian origin and has never been in use to denote a single nation. It was first used by Persian geographers to describe the place of Turkish peoples...
.
Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
in 832
832
Year 832 was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Pepin I of Aquitaine and Louis the German revolt against Louis the Pious, Emperor of the Franks....
, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza
Great Pyramid of Giza
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact...
looking for knowledge and treasure. He entered the pyramid by tunneling into the Great Pyramid near where tradition located the original entrance.
Personal Characteristics
Al-Tabari (v. 32, p. 231) describes al-Ma'mun as of average height, light complexion, handsome and having a long beard losing its dark colour as he aged. He relates anecdotes concerning the caliph's ability to speak concisely and eloquently without preparation, his generosity, his respect for Muhammad and religion, his sense of moderation, justice and his love of poetry.Death
Al-Tabari (v.32, pp. 224–231) recounts how Al-Ma'mun was sitting on the river bank telling those with him how splendid the water was. He asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh dates. Noticing supplies arriving, he asked someone to check whether such dates were included. As they were, he invited those with him to enjoy the water with these dates. All who did this fell ill. Others recovered. But Al-Ma'mun died. As he was dying he spoke, expressing his belief in the unity of God and his reliance on God's mercy. He encouraged his successor to continue his policies and not burden the people with more than they could bear. This was on August 9, 833.Al-Ma'mun died near Tarsus
Tarsus (city)
Tarsus is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin Metropolitan Area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of 2.75 million...
. The city's major mosque (Tarsus Grand Mosque
Tarsus Grand Mosque
Tarsus Grand Mosque is a mosque in Tarsus, Mersin Province, Turkey.- Geography :The mosque is at the center of Tarsus at about in Camii Nur neighbourhood. It is the biggest mosque of Tarsus. It is very close to St Paul's Church, only about bird's flight away.- History :The mosque had been built...
), contains a tomb reported to be his. He was succeeded not by his son, Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun
Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun
Al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun was an Arab prince and general, the son of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun . A distinguished military leader in the Byzantine–Arab Wars, he was passed over in the succession in favour of his uncle al-Mu'tasim...
, but by his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim
Al-Mu'tasim
Abu Ishaq 'Abbas al-Mu'tasim ibn Harun was an Abbasid caliph . He succeeded his half-brother al-Ma'mun...
.
Further reading
- Muhammad ibn Jarir al-TabariMuhammad ibn Jarir al-TabariAbu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari was a prominent and influential Sunni scholar and exegete of the Qur'an from Persia...
History vol. 31 "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992; vol. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987. - John Bagot GlubbJohn Bagot GlubbLieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, MC better known as Glubb Pasha , was a British soldier, scholar and author, best known for leading and training Transjordan's Arab Legion 1939-1956 as its commanding general...
The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963. - Peter Tompkins, "Secrets of the Great Pyramid", chapter 2, Harper and Row, 1971.
- E. de la Vaissière, Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d'Asie centrale dans l'empire Abbasside, Peeters, 2007 http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=8356
- Michael CoopersonMichael CoopersonMichael Cooperson is an American scholar and translator of Arabic literature. He is currently associate professor of Arabic at UCLA. He has written two book: Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of al-Ma'mun and Al-Mamun . He is also the translator of a number of works...
, Al-Ma’mun, Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 2005 - Dimitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic culture: the Graeco-Arabic translation movement in Baghdad and early Abbasid society Routledge, London, 1998
- Hugh KennedyHugh KennedyHugh Kennedy was the only Attorney-General of Southern Ireland and the first Attorney-General of the Irish Free State, and later the first Chief Justice of the Irish Free State. As a member of the Irish Free State Constitution Commission, he was also one of the constitutional architects of the...
, The Early Abbasid Caliphate, a political History, Croom Helm, London, 1981 - John Nawas, A Reexamination of three current explanations for Al-Ma’mun’s introduction of the Mihna, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 26, (1994) pp. 615–629
- John Nawas, John The MihnaMihnaThe Mihna refers to a test instituted by the Abassid Caliph al-Ma'mun in 218 AH/833 AD, in which religious scholars were required to answer whether or not the Qu'ran was a created text. Those who answered in the affirmative were retained; those who answered in the negative were dismissed...
of 218 A.H./833 A.D. Revisited: An Empirical Study, Journal of the American Oriental Society 116.4 (1996) pp. 698–708