Al Kaline
Encyclopedia
Albert William "Al" Kaline (icon; born December 19, 1934 in Baltimore, Maryland
) is a former Major League Baseball
right fielder
. He is a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame. Kaline played his entire 22-year baseball career with the Detroit Tigers
. Kaline still works for the Tigers as a front office official. Because of his lengthy career and longtime association with the Tigers organization, Kaline's nickname is "Mr. Tiger."
For most of his career, Kaline played in the outfield
, mainly as a right fielder
, where he was known for his strong throwing arm. Near the end of his career, he also played as first baseman
and, in his last season, was the Tigers' designated hitter
.
Kaline bypassed the minor league
system and joined the team directly from Baltimore's Southern High School
as an 18-year-old "bonus baby
" signee, receiving $35,000 ($ as of ), to sign with the Tigers. He made his major league debut on June 25, 1953
in Philadelphia
as a late-inning replacement for outfielder Jim Delsing
. Kaline wore No. 25 during his rookie campaign, but asked teammate Pat Mullin
for his No. 6 after the 1953 season ended. Kaline, who was also known simply as "Six" in the Tiger clubhouse, wore the number for the rest of his major league playing career.
In 1955
, at age 20, Kaline ended the season with a .340 batting average
, becoming the youngest player ever to win the American League
batting title. During the season, Kaline became the 13th man in major league history to hit two home run
s in the same inning, became the youngest to hit three home runs in one game, and finished the year with 200 hits
, 27 home runs and 102 RBIs
. He also finished second to Yogi Berra
in the American League's 1955
Most Valuable Player Award voting. Kaline followed in 1956
with a .314 batting average with 27 home runs and 128 RBIs. He led the league in outfield assists
with 18 in 1956 and again in 1958
with 23. In 1963
Kaline hit .312 with 27 home runs and 101 RBIs to finish second to Elston Howard
in the American League's Most Valuable Player Award voting.
Although he had missed two months of the 1968
season with a broken arm
, he returned to the lineup
when Tiger manager Mayo Smith
benched shortstop
Ray Oyler
and sent center fielder Mickey Stanley
to play shortstop to make room for Kaline in the outfield. ESPN
later called Smith's move one of the ten greatest coaching decisions of the century. In the 1968 World Series
, the St. Louis Cardinals
had won three of the first four games of the series and were leading Game 5 by a score of 3–2 in the seventh inning, when Kaline hit a bases loaded
single
to drive in two runs
. The Tigers went on to win the next two games to win their first world championship since 1945
. In his only World Series appearance, Kaline hit .379 with two home runs and eight RBIs in seven games.
On September 24, 1974
, Kaline became the 12th player in Major League Baseball history to reach the 3000 hit
plateau, when he hit a double
off the Orioles' Dave McNally
. Kaline finished his career with 3,007 hits (25th on the all-time list), 399 home runs (a Tigers record and 43rd on the all-time list) and 1583 RBIs. He batted over .300 nine times in his career to finish with a lifetime batting average of .297 and, while never considered a true power hitter, he hit 25 or more home runs seven times in his career.
, becoming the tenth player in history to be inducted in his first year of eligibility. Kaline was honored by the Tigers as the first of their players to have his uniform number (6) retired. Versatile and well-rounded, he won ten Gold Glove Award
s (1957–59 and 1961–67) for excellence in the field and appeared in the All-Star
game for fifteen seasons (1955–67, 1971, 1974). In , he ranked Number 76 on The Sporting News
list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was nominated as a finalist for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team
.
Cherry Street, which ran behind the left-field stands at Tiger Stadium, was renamed Kaline Drive in his honor. Later that year, on September 27, 1999, when the team played its last game at Tiger Stadium, Kaline was invited to appear in uniform and present the last lineup card to the umpires. He did so along with George Brett
, considered one of the greatest players ever for the Tigers' opponents that day. Baltimore Oriole
third baseman Brooks Robinson
said of him, "There have been a lot of great defensive players. The fella who could do everything is Al Kaline. He was just the epitome of what a great outfielder is all about – great speed, catches the ball and throws the ball well.” With earlier legend Ty Cobb
having been more respected and feared than loved, Kaline is the probably most popular player ever to play for the Tigers, and possibly the most popular athlete in Detroit history, as he is remembered as much for being a true gentleman as he is for being a superb athlete.
After his playing career, Kaline lived in the Detroit area, and has remained active within the Tigers organization, serving first as a color commentator
on the team's television
broadcasts (1975–2002) mostly with play by play announcer and former Tiger George Kell
, and then later as a consultant to the team. Since 2003, Kaline has served as a special assistant to Tigers President/CEO/General Manager Dave Dombrowski
, and his duties include coaching/mentoring outfielders during spring training. Former Tigers teammate Willie Horton also holds this position, and the two threw out the first pitch of the 2006 World Series
at Comerica Park
.
In the Nickelodeon cartoon Hey Arnold!
, there is a famous baseball player by the name of "Mickey Kaline", whose name would be a mixture of both legendary baseball players Al Kaline and Mickey Mantle
Kaline is an active golfer, playing multiple times per week. On May 24, 2008, Kaline hit a hole-in-one at Oakland Hills Country Club
.
Maryland
Maryland is a U.S. state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware to its east...
) is a former Major League Baseball
Major League Baseball
Major League Baseball is the highest level of professional baseball in the United States and Canada, consisting of teams that play in the National League and the American League...
right fielder
Right fielder
A right fielder, abbreviated RF, is the outfielder in baseball or softball who plays defense in right field. Right field is the area of the outfield to the right of a person standing at home plate and facing towards the pitcher's mound...
. He is a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame. Kaline played his entire 22-year baseball career with the Detroit Tigers
Detroit Tigers
The Detroit Tigers are a Major League Baseball team located in Detroit, Michigan. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Detroit in as part of the Western League. The Tigers have won four World Series championships and have won the American League pennant...
. Kaline still works for the Tigers as a front office official. Because of his lengthy career and longtime association with the Tigers organization, Kaline's nickname is "Mr. Tiger."
For most of his career, Kaline played in the outfield
Outfield
The outfield is a sporting term used in cricket and baseball to refer to the area of the field of play further from the batsman or batter than the infield...
, mainly as a right fielder
Right fielder
A right fielder, abbreviated RF, is the outfielder in baseball or softball who plays defense in right field. Right field is the area of the outfield to the right of a person standing at home plate and facing towards the pitcher's mound...
, where he was known for his strong throwing arm. Near the end of his career, he also played as first baseman
First baseman
First base, or 1B, is the first of four stations on a baseball diamond which must be touched in succession by a baserunner in order to score a run for that player's team...
and, in his last season, was the Tigers' designated hitter
Designated hitter
In baseball, the designated hitter rule is the common name for Major League Baseball Rule 6.10, an official position adopted by the American League in 1973 that allows teams to designate a player, known as the designated hitter , to bat in place of the pitcher each time he would otherwise come to...
.
Major League Baseball career
Minor league baseball
Minor league baseball is a hierarchy of professional baseball leagues in the Americas that compete at levels below Major League Baseball and provide opportunities for player development. All of the minor leagues are operated as independent businesses...
system and joined the team directly from Baltimore's Southern High School
Southern High School (Baltimore)
Southern Senior High School was a former secondary school in south Baltimore, Maryland, originally built in 1910 with an addition in 1926. Part of the Baltimore City Public School System, it was originally located on the southeast corner of Warren Avenue and William Street...
as an 18-year-old "bonus baby
Bonus Rule
The Bonus Rule was a rule instituted by Major League Baseball in 1947 that prevented teams from assigning certain players to farm clubs. The rule stipulated that when a Major league team signed a player to a contract in excess of $4,000 , the Major League team was required to keep that player on...
" signee, receiving $35,000 ($ as of ), to sign with the Tigers. He made his major league debut on June 25, 1953
1953 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers season was a season in American baseball. The team finished sixth in the American League with a record of 60-94, 40½ games behind the New York Yankees.-Offseason:...
in Philadelphia
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Philadelphia County, with which it is coterminous. The city is located in the Northeastern United States along the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It is the fifth-most-populous city in the United States,...
as a late-inning replacement for outfielder Jim Delsing
Jim Delsing
James Henry Delsing was an American Major League Baseball outfielder who is most remembered for having been the pinch runner for -tall Eddie Gaedel on August 19,...
. Kaline wore No. 25 during his rookie campaign, but asked teammate Pat Mullin
Pat Mullin
Patrick Joseph "Pat" Mullin , was a Major League Baseball outfielder for the Detroit Tigers from 1940-1941 and 1946-1953. Born in Trotter, Pennsylvania, Mullin was signed by the Tigers before the 1937 season as a 19-year old amateur free agent...
for his No. 6 after the 1953 season ended. Kaline, who was also known simply as "Six" in the Tiger clubhouse, wore the number for the rest of his major league playing career.
In 1955
1955 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers season was a season in American baseball. The team finished fifth in the American League with a record of 79-75, 17 games behind the New York Yankees.- Offseason :...
, at age 20, Kaline ended the season with a .340 batting average
Batting average
Batting average is a statistic in both cricket and baseball that measures the performance of cricket batsmen and baseball hitters. The two statistics are related in that baseball averages are directly descended from the concept of cricket averages.- Cricket :...
, becoming the youngest player ever to win the American League
American League
The American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, or simply the American League , is one of two leagues that make up Major League Baseball in the United States and Canada. It developed from the Western League, a minor league based in the Great Lakes states, which eventually aspired to major...
batting title. During the season, Kaline became the 13th man in major league history to hit two home run
Home run
In baseball, a home run is scored when the ball is hit in such a way that the batter is able to reach home safely in one play without any errors being committed by the defensive team in the process...
s in the same inning, became the youngest to hit three home runs in one game, and finished the year with 200 hits
Hit (baseball)
In baseball statistics, a hit , also called a base hit, is credited to a batter when the batter safely reaches first base after hitting the ball into fair territory, without the benefit of an error or a fielder's choice....
, 27 home runs and 102 RBIs
Run batted in
Runs batted in or RBIs is a statistic used in baseball and softball to credit a batter when the outcome of his at-bat results in a run being scored, except in certain situations such as when an error is made on the play. The first team to track RBI was the Buffalo Bisons.Common nicknames for an RBI...
. He also finished second to Yogi Berra
Yogi Berra
Lawrence Peter "Yogi" Berra is a former American Major League Baseball catcher, outfielder, and manager. He played almost his entire 19-year baseball career for the New York Yankees...
in the American League's 1955
1955 in baseball
-Major League Baseball:*World Series: Brooklyn Dodgers over New York Yankees ; Johnny Podres, MVP*All-Star Game, July 12 at County Stadium: National League, 6-5 -Other champions:*Caribbean World Series: Cangrejeros de Santurce...
Most Valuable Player Award voting. Kaline followed in 1956
1956 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers season was a season in American baseball. The team finished fifth in the American League with a record of 82-72, 15 games behind the New York Yankees.- Offseason :...
with a .314 batting average with 27 home runs and 128 RBIs. He led the league in outfield assists
Assist (baseball)
In baseball, an assist is a defensive statistic, baseball being one of the few sports in which the defensive team controls the ball. An assist is awarded to every defensive player who fields or touches the ball prior to the recording of a putout, even if the contact was unintentional...
with 18 in 1956 and again in 1958
1958 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers season was a season in American baseball. The team finished fifth in the American League with a record of 77-77, 15 games behind the New York Yankees.- Offseason :...
with 23. In 1963
1963 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers season was a season in American baseball. The team finished tied for fifth in the American League with a record of 79-83, 25½ games behind the New York Yankees.- Offseason :* November 26, 1962: 1962 first-year draft...
Kaline hit .312 with 27 home runs and 101 RBIs to finish second to Elston Howard
Elston Howard
Elston Gene Howard was an American Negro League and Major League Baseball catcher, left fielder and coach. During a 14-year baseball career, he played from 1955–1968, primarily for the New York Yankees...
in the American League's Most Valuable Player Award voting.
Although he had missed two months of the 1968
1968 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers won the 1968 World Series, defeating the St. Louis Cardinals 4 games to 3. The 1968 baseball season, known as the "Year of the Pitcher," was the Tigers' 68th since they entered the American League in 1901, their eighth pennant, and third World Series championship...
season with a broken arm
Bone fracture
A bone fracture is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone...
, he returned to the lineup
Batting order (baseball)
The batting order, or batting lineup, in baseball is the sequence in which the nine members of the offense take their turns in batting against the pitcher. The batting order is the main component of a team's offensive strategy. The batting order is set by the manager before the game begins...
when Tiger manager Mayo Smith
Mayo Smith
Edward Mayo Smith was an American player, manager, and scout in Major League Baseball.Smith was born in New London, Missouri, but grew up in Florida. A left-handed batter who threw right-handed, Smith was a career minor league outfielder who spent many seasons in the International League with the...
benched shortstop
Shortstop
Shortstop, abbreviated SS, is the baseball fielding position between second and third base. Shortstop is often regarded as the most dynamic defensive position in baseball, because there are more right-handed hitters in baseball than left-handed hitters, and most hitters have a tendency to pull the...
Ray Oyler
Ray Oyler
Raymond Francis Oyler was an American Major League Baseball shortstop. He played for the Detroit Tigers , Seattle Pilots , and California Angels...
and sent center fielder Mickey Stanley
Mickey Stanley
Mitchell Jack "Mickey" Stanley was a baseball player for the Detroit Tigers from 1964-1978. Stanley was known as a superb defensive outfielder over his 15-year career, though he is best remembered for the last few weeks of the 1968 season.-Early life:Stanley prepped at Ottawa Hills High School in...
to play shortstop to make room for Kaline in the outfield. ESPN
ESPN
Entertainment and Sports Programming Network, commonly known as ESPN, is an American global cable television network focusing on sports-related programming including live and pre-taped event telecasts, sports talk shows, and other original programming....
later called Smith's move one of the ten greatest coaching decisions of the century. In the 1968 World Series
1968 World Series
The 1968 World Series featured the defending champion St. Louis Cardinals against the Detroit Tigers, with the Tigers winning in seven games for their first championship since 1945, and the third in their history...
, the St. Louis Cardinals
1968 St. Louis Cardinals season
The St. Louis Cardinals season was the team's 87th season in St. Louis, Missouri and its 77th season in the National League. The Cardinals went 97-65 during the season, winning their second consecutive NL pennant, this time by nine games over the San Francisco Giants. They lost in 7 games to the...
had won three of the first four games of the series and were leading Game 5 by a score of 3–2 in the seventh inning, when Kaline hit a bases loaded
Bases loaded
In the sport of baseball, the bases are loaded when there is a runner on each base . This presents a great scoring opportunity for the batting team, but it also presents an easy double play opportunity for the defense. Causing the bases to become loaded is called loading the bases...
single
Single (baseball)
In baseball, a single is the most common type of base hit, accomplished through the act of a batter safely reaching first base by hitting a fair ball and getting to first base before a fielder puts him out...
to drive in two runs
Run (baseball)
In baseball, a run is scored when a player advances around first, second and third base and returns safely to home plate, touching the bases in that order, before three outs are recorded and all obligations to reach base safely on batted balls are met or assured...
. The Tigers went on to win the next two games to win their first world championship since 1945
1945 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers was the team's 45th since they entered the American League in 1901. The team won the American League pennant, then went on to win the 1945 World Series, defeating the Chicago Cubs 4 games to 3. It was the second World Series championship for the Tigers...
. In his only World Series appearance, Kaline hit .379 with two home runs and eight RBIs in seven games.
On September 24, 1974
1974 Detroit Tigers season
The Detroit Tigers compiled a record of 72-90. They finished in last place in the American League East, 19 games behind the Baltimore Orioles. They were outscored by their opponents 768 to 620.- Offseason :...
, Kaline became the 12th player in Major League Baseball history to reach the 3000 hit
3000 hit club
In Major League Baseball , the 3,000 hit club is a term applied to the group of batters who have collected 3,000 or more regular-season hits in their careers. Cap Anson was the first to join the club on July 18, 1897, although his precise career hit total is unclear. Two players—Nap Lajoie and...
plateau, when he hit a double
Double (baseball)
In baseball, a double is the act of a batter striking the pitched ball and safely reaching second base without being called out by the umpire, without the benefit of a fielder's misplay or another runner being put out on a fielder's choice....
off the Orioles' Dave McNally
Dave McNally
David Arthur "Dave" McNally was a Major League Baseball left-handed starting pitcher from until . He was signed by the Baltimore Orioles and played with them every season except for his final season with the Montreal Expos.McNally has the unique distinction as the only pitcher in Major League...
. Kaline finished his career with 3,007 hits (25th on the all-time list), 399 home runs (a Tigers record and 43rd on the all-time list) and 1583 RBIs. He batted over .300 nine times in his career to finish with a lifetime batting average of .297 and, while never considered a true power hitter, he hit 25 or more home runs seven times in his career.
Honors and post-playing career
Kaline was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1980Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1980
Elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame for 1980 followed the system in place since 1978.The Baseball Writers Association of America voted by mail to select from recent major league players andelected Al Kaline and Duke Snider....
, becoming the tenth player in history to be inducted in his first year of eligibility. Kaline was honored by the Tigers as the first of their players to have his uniform number (6) retired. Versatile and well-rounded, he won ten Gold Glove Award
Gold Glove Award
The Rawlings Gold Glove Award, usually referred to as the Gold Glove, is the award given annually to the Major League Baseball players judged to have exhibited superior individual fielding performances at each fielding position in both the National League and the American League , as voted by the...
s (1957–59 and 1961–67) for excellence in the field and appeared in the All-Star
Major League Baseball All-Star Game
The Major League Baseball All-Star Game, also known as the "Midsummer Classic", is an annual baseball game between players from the National League and the American League, currently selected by a combination of fans, players, coaches, and managers...
game for fifteen seasons (1955–67, 1971, 1974). In , he ranked Number 76 on The Sporting News
The Sporting News
Sporting News is an American-based sports magazine. It was established in 1886, and it became the dominant American publication covering baseball — so much so that it acquired the nickname "The Bible of Baseball"...
list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was nominated as a finalist for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team
Major League Baseball All-Century Team
In 1999, the Major League Baseball All-Century Team was chosen by popular vote of fans. To select the team, a panel of experts first compiled a list of the 100 greatest Major League Baseball players from the past century...
.
Cherry Street, which ran behind the left-field stands at Tiger Stadium, was renamed Kaline Drive in his honor. Later that year, on September 27, 1999, when the team played its last game at Tiger Stadium, Kaline was invited to appear in uniform and present the last lineup card to the umpires. He did so along with George Brett
George Brett (baseball)
George Howard Brett , nicknamed "Mullet", is a former Major League Baseball third baseman, designated hitter, and first baseman. He played his entire 21-year baseball career for the Kansas City Royals. Brett's 3,154 career hits are the most by any third baseman in major league history, and 15th...
, considered one of the greatest players ever for the Tigers' opponents that day. Baltimore Oriole
Baltimore Oriole
The Baltimore Oriole is a small icterid blackbird that averages 18 cm long and weighs 34 g. This bird received its name from the fact that the male's colors resemble those on the coat-of-arms of Lord Baltimore...
third baseman Brooks Robinson
Brooks Robinson
Brooks Calbert Robinson, Jr. is a former American professional baseball player. He played his entire 23-year major league career for the Baltimore Orioles . Nicknamed "The Human Vacuum Cleaner", he is generally acclaimed as the greatest defensive third-basemen in major league history...
said of him, "There have been a lot of great defensive players. The fella who could do everything is Al Kaline. He was just the epitome of what a great outfielder is all about – great speed, catches the ball and throws the ball well.” With earlier legend Ty Cobb
Ty Cobb
Tyrus Raymond "Ty" Cobb , nicknamed "The Georgia Peach," was an American Major League Baseball outfielder. He was born in Narrows, Georgia...
having been more respected and feared than loved, Kaline is the probably most popular player ever to play for the Tigers, and possibly the most popular athlete in Detroit history, as he is remembered as much for being a true gentleman as he is for being a superb athlete.
After his playing career, Kaline lived in the Detroit area, and has remained active within the Tigers organization, serving first as a color commentator
Color commentator
A color commentator is a sports commentator who assists the play-by-play announcer, often by filling in any time when play is not in progress. The color analyst and main commentator will often exchange comments freely throughout the broadcast, when the play-by-play announcer is not describing the...
on the team's television
Television
Television is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochrome or colored, with accompanying sound...
broadcasts (1975–2002) mostly with play by play announcer and former Tiger George Kell
George Kell
George Clyde Kell was an American baseball third baseman who played for the Philadelphia Athletics , Detroit Tigers , Boston Red Sox , Chicago White Sox , and Baltimore Orioles in the American League, who went on to become a baseball broadcaster for 40 years.-Playing career:In college, Kell...
, and then later as a consultant to the team. Since 2003, Kaline has served as a special assistant to Tigers President/CEO/General Manager Dave Dombrowski
Dave Dombrowski
David Dombrowski is the current president, CEO, and general manager of the Detroit Tigers of Major League Baseball.-Chicago White Sox:...
, and his duties include coaching/mentoring outfielders during spring training. Former Tigers teammate Willie Horton also holds this position, and the two threw out the first pitch of the 2006 World Series
2006 World Series
The 2006 World Series, the 102nd edition of Major League Baseball's championship series, began on October 21 and ended on October 27, and matched the American League champion Detroit Tigers against the National League champion St. Louis Cardinals. The Cardinals won the Series in five games, taking...
at Comerica Park
Comerica Park
Comerica Park is an open-air ballpark located in downtown Detroit, Michigan. It serves as the home of the Detroit Tigers of Major League Baseball's American League, replacing historic Tiger Stadium in 2000....
.
In the Nickelodeon cartoon Hey Arnold!
Hey Arnold!
Hey Arnold! is an American animated television series created by Craig Bartlett for Nickelodeon. The show's premise focuses on a fourth grader named Arnold who lives with his grandparents. Episodes center on his experiences navigating big city life while dealing with the problems he and his friends...
, there is a famous baseball player by the name of "Mickey Kaline", whose name would be a mixture of both legendary baseball players Al Kaline and Mickey Mantle
Mickey Mantle
Mickey Charles Mantle was an American professional baseball player. Mantle is regarded by many to be the greatest switch hitter of all time, and one of the greatest players in baseball history. Mantle was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974.Mantle was noted for his hitting...
Kaline is an active golfer, playing multiple times per week. On May 24, 2008, Kaline hit a hole-in-one at Oakland Hills Country Club
Oakland Hills Country Club
Oakland Hills Country Club is a private golf club in Bloomfield Township, Oakland County, Michigan. It has hosted many prestigious professional golf tournaments throughout its history. The club consists of two 18 hole courses: the South Course and the North Course. The South Course has hosted all...
.
See also
- List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame
- List of Major League Baseball retired numbers
- List of major league players with 2,000 hits
- List of AL Gold Glove Winners at Outfield
- List of baseball players who went directly to the major leagues
- List of Major League Baseball players with 400 doubles
- List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs
- List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI
- 3000 hit club3000 hit clubIn Major League Baseball , the 3,000 hit club is a term applied to the group of batters who have collected 3,000 or more regular-season hits in their careers. Cap Anson was the first to join the club on July 18, 1897, although his precise career hit total is unclear. Two players—Nap Lajoie and...
- List of Major League Baseball batting champions
External links
- Baseball Library
- Al Kaline at Encyclopedia.com
- Al Kaline at The Baseball Page
- Al Kaline at retrosheet.org
- Al Kaline – the Detroit Tigers' 'Mr. Perfection at the Detroit News
- Why The Red Sox Passed Up Al Kaline, Baseball Digest, February 1971
- Al Kaline: I Want 3000 Hits, Baseball Digest, July 1972
- Al Kaline profile, Baseball Digest, February 1991