Albatrellus subrubescens
Encyclopedia
Albatrellus subrubescens is a terrestrial
polypore
fungus
. The fruit bodies
of the fungus have whitish to pale buff-colored caps
that can reach up to 14.5 cm (5.7 in) in diameter, and stems
up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long and 2 cm (0.78740157480315 in) thick. On the underside of the caps are light yellow to pale greenish yellow tiny pores, the site of spore
production. When the fruit bodies are fresh, the cap and pores stain yellow where exposed, handled, or bruised. The mushroom is found in North America, Europe and China, where it grows on the ground in deciduous or mixed woods, usually in association with pine trees. It is closely related, and physically similar, to the more common Albatrellus ovinus
, from which it may be distinguished macroscopically by differences in bruising colors, and microscopically by the amyloid
(staining bluish-black to black with Melzer's reagent
) walls of the spore
s. The fruit bodies contain a chemical named scutigeral that has antibiotic
and pharmacological
activity. The fungus is inedible.
by American mycologist William Murrill
, who found it in Florida
in 1940 and named it Scutiger subrubescens; in 1947 he transferred it to the genus Polyporus
. Josiah Lincoln Lowe later identified the species as Albatrellus confluens
. In 1965, Zdeněk Pouzar collected samples from Czechoslovakia
, and described it as a new species (Albatrellus similis), not aware of the similarity to Murrill's Florida specimens. Further study revealed that A. similis was identical to Murrill's Scutiger subrubescens, and the epithet was transferred to Albatrellus. In 1974, Pouzar recognized that Lowe's Albatrellus confluens
was a species distinct from A. subrubescens. The specific epithet subrubescens is derived from the Latin
words sub ("under") and rubescens ("to grow red").
Four Albatrellus species were included in a large-scale phylogenetic analysis of the Russulales
order published in 2003. Based on their ribosomal DNA
sequences, the four form a clade, or monophyletic group (that is, they derived from a single ancestor). Of the four tested species, A. ovinus was most closely related to A. subrubescens. The polypore Wrightoporia lenta (type species
of the genus Wrightoporia
) occurred on a single branch basal
to the albatrellus clade
, implying that it was an earlier ancestor from which the Albatrellus species were derived.
of A. subrubescens is between 6 to 14.5 cm (2.4 to 5.7 in) in diameter, with a central, eccentric, or rarely lateral stem. Initially, the cap is convex with an involute margin, flattening out with age. The cap margin may be folded or flat. The cap surface in young specimens is smooth but soon forms appressed scale-like spots, which may transform into scales in age.
In young specimens the cap margin is white, and brownish violet in the center and on the scale-like spots, later becoming orange-brownish or ochraceous
brown. Some specimens may be covered with blackish-gray to purple-gray fibrils. The cap discolors yellow to orange when bruised. The stem is 1.6 to 7 cm (0.62992125984252 to 2.8 in) long and 1 to 2 cm (0.393700787401575 to 0.78740157480315 in) thick, cylindrical, irregular, and the base of the stem may be somewhat pointed, or bulbous. Initially white, the stem develops orange/violet spots and later brownish orange spots; in old specimens the stem may be brownish brick red. The tubes on the pore surface (underside of the cap) are about 2.5–3 mm long and decurrent
in attachment; the pores are small (about 2–3 per millimeter), initially greenish-white, but later dark brown. Dried specimens can have pores that are tinted green. The fruit bodies have a "faintly fragrant, pleasant" odor, and lack a distinctive taste. They are considered inedible.
In deposit
, the spores are white. The spore
s are 3.4–4.7 by 2.2–3.4 µm, ellipsoid to ovoid in shape, and amyloid
. Most have a single large oil drop. The spore-bearing cells (the basidia) are club-shaped, 12–16 µm long by 5.7–7.7 µm thick, with four thin, slightly curved sterigmata that are 3.4–4.3 µm long. The hyphal system is monomitic, meaning that there are only thin-walled skeletal hypha
e present. These hyphae are typically 6–17 µm, with thin walls (up to 1 µm thick), and hyaline
(translucent). Although they are nonamyloid
(not absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent
), some hyphae have internal masses that are colored pale bluish-gray to black, which makes them appear collectively grayish-black under the microscope.
is similar in appearance, however, A. subrubescens often has a violet color. Microscopically, the spores of A. subrubescens are amyloid, while the ones of A. ovinus are not, and A. ovinus has smaller spores, typically 3.8–4.6 by 3.3–3.5 µm. In general, A. subrubescens can be distinguished from other Albatrellus species by its white cap that becomes orange when bruised, its simple-septate hyphae, small amyloid spores, and habitat under Pinus. Other closely related species include A. cantharellus and A. tianschanicus, which differ from A. subrubescens by the hairy scales on the cap surface, and because the scales of A. subrubescens are not much darker then the area between the scales. A. confluens
has caps that are colored pinkish-buff to pale orange, and white flesh that dries to a pinkish-buff; it has a taste that is bitter, or like cabbage. The spores of A. confluens are weakly amyloid.
Specimens of A. subrubescens are usually solitary, but sometimes several (usually between two and eight) fruit bodies are stuck together by the stem bases or on the sides of their caps. It is strictly terrestrial
, not found on wood. The species has been reported from a variety of locations in central Europe, North America, In western North America, its distribution includes Arizona
, Alberta
, California
, Northwest Territories
, and Washington; The distribution extends south to Mexico (Chiapas
). It is also found in the Gulf Coast region, from Florida
to Texas
. In Asia, it has been collected from China (Yunnan
and Tibet
), and Japan
(as A. cantharellus). It prefers to grow in pine woods, but has occasionally been associated with silver fir. Ginns, relating a personal communication with David Arora
, writes that Arora "found many clumps of basidiomes in a half hectare area covered mainly by a mixture of Pinus attenuata, manzanita
, huckleberry
, and a few scattered mandrones."
activity. This chemical is also found in the related species A. ovinus. Scutigeral interacts selectively to the dopamine receptor D1 subfamily
(the most abundant dopamine receptor in the central nervous system, regulating neuronal growth and development, mediating some behavioral responses). A 1999 publication suggested that scutigeral had agonist
ic activity at vanilloid receptors (a receptor
found on sensory nerve
s throughout the human body), specifically, that it influenced the uptake of calcium
in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. However, a 2003 study failed to find any such pharmacological activity.
Terrestrial animal
Terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land , as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water , or amphibians, which rely on a combination of aquatic and terrestrial habitats...
polypore
Polypore
Polypores are a group of tough, leathery poroid mushrooms similar to boletes, but typically lacking a distinct stalk. The technical distinction between the two types of mushrooms is that polypores do not have the spore-bearing tissue continuous along the entire underside of the mushroom. Many...
fungus
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
. The fruit bodies
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
of the fungus have whitish to pale buff-colored caps
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
that can reach up to 14.5 cm (5.7 in) in diameter, and stems
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long and 2 cm (0.78740157480315 in) thick. On the underside of the caps are light yellow to pale greenish yellow tiny pores, the site of spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
production. When the fruit bodies are fresh, the cap and pores stain yellow where exposed, handled, or bruised. The mushroom is found in North America, Europe and China, where it grows on the ground in deciduous or mixed woods, usually in association with pine trees. It is closely related, and physically similar, to the more common Albatrellus ovinus
Albatrellus ovinus
Albatrellus ovinus is a terrestrial polypore fungus found in Northern Europe. It is very closely related to the more common A. subrubescens, from which it may be distinguished microscopically by the amyloid spore wall. It is edible and sold commercially in Finland.-Similar species:Albatrellus...
, from which it may be distinguished macroscopically by differences in bruising colors, and microscopically by the amyloid
Amyloid
Amyloids are insoluble fibrous protein aggregates sharing specific structural traits. Abnormal accumulation of amyloid in organs may lead to amyloidosis, and may play a role in various neurodegenerative diseases.-Definition:...
(staining bluish-black to black with Melzer's reagent
Melzer's Reagent
Melzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
) walls of the spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s. The fruit bodies contain a chemical named scutigeral that has antibiotic
Antibiotic
An antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of...
and pharmacological
Pharmacology
Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function...
activity. The fungus is inedible.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The species was first describedSpecies description
A species description or type description is a formal description of a newly discovered species, usually in the form of a scientific paper. Its purpose is to give a clear description of a new species of organism and explain how it differs from species which have been described previously, or are...
by American mycologist William Murrill
William Murrill
William Alphonso Murrill was an American mycologist, known for his contributions to the knowledge of the Agaricales and Polyporaceae.- Education :...
, who found it in Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
in 1940 and named it Scutiger subrubescens; in 1947 he transferred it to the genus Polyporus
Polyporus
Polyporus is a genus of fungi in the Polyporaceae family. It is a genus used for the production of single cell proteins, sources of mixed protein extracted from pure or mixed cultures of algae, yeasts, fungi or bacteria used as a substitute for protein-rich foods, in human and animal feeds.The...
. Josiah Lincoln Lowe later identified the species as Albatrellus confluens
Albatrellus confluens
Albatrellus confluens is a species of fungus in the genus Albatrellaceae....
. In 1965, Zdeněk Pouzar collected samples from Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
, and described it as a new species (Albatrellus similis), not aware of the similarity to Murrill's Florida specimens. Further study revealed that A. similis was identical to Murrill's Scutiger subrubescens, and the epithet was transferred to Albatrellus. In 1974, Pouzar recognized that Lowe's Albatrellus confluens
Albatrellus confluens
Albatrellus confluens is a species of fungus in the genus Albatrellaceae....
was a species distinct from A. subrubescens. The specific epithet subrubescens is derived from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
words sub ("under") and rubescens ("to grow red").
Four Albatrellus species were included in a large-scale phylogenetic analysis of the Russulales
Russulales
The Russulales are an order of the Agaricomycetes,...
order published in 2003. Based on their ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA codes for ribosomal RNA. The ribosome is an intracellular macromolecule that produces proteins or polypeptide chains. The ribosome itself consists of a composite of proteins and RNA. As shown in the figure, rDNA consists of a tandem repeat of a unit segment, an operon, composed of...
sequences, the four form a clade, or monophyletic group (that is, they derived from a single ancestor). Of the four tested species, A. ovinus was most closely related to A. subrubescens. The polypore Wrightoporia lenta (type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of the genus Wrightoporia
Wrightoporia
Wrightoporia is a genus of fungi in the family Bondarzewiaceae. The widely distributed genus contains 23 species....
) occurred on a single branch basal
Basal (phylogenetics)
In phylogenetics, a basal clade is the earliest clade to branch in a larger clade; it appears at the base of a cladogram.A basal group forms an outgroup to the rest of the clade, such as in the following example:...
to the albatrellus clade
Clade
A clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
, implying that it was an earlier ancestor from which the Albatrellus species were derived.
Description
The capPileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
of A. subrubescens is between 6 to 14.5 cm (2.4 to 5.7 in) in diameter, with a central, eccentric, or rarely lateral stem. Initially, the cap is convex with an involute margin, flattening out with age. The cap margin may be folded or flat. The cap surface in young specimens is smooth but soon forms appressed scale-like spots, which may transform into scales in age.
Ochre
Ochre is the term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as "red ochre". The more rarely used terms "purple ochre" and "brown ochre" also exist for variant hues...
brown. Some specimens may be covered with blackish-gray to purple-gray fibrils. The cap discolors yellow to orange when bruised. The stem is 1.6 to 7 cm (0.62992125984252 to 2.8 in) long and 1 to 2 cm (0.393700787401575 to 0.78740157480315 in) thick, cylindrical, irregular, and the base of the stem may be somewhat pointed, or bulbous. Initially white, the stem develops orange/violet spots and later brownish orange spots; in old specimens the stem may be brownish brick red. The tubes on the pore surface (underside of the cap) are about 2.5–3 mm long and decurrent
Decurrent
Decurrent is a term used in botany and mycology to describe plant or fungal parts that extend downward.In botany, the term is most often applied to leaf blades that partly wrap or have wings around the stem or petiole and extend down along the stem...
in attachment; the pores are small (about 2–3 per millimeter), initially greenish-white, but later dark brown. Dried specimens can have pores that are tinted green. The fruit bodies have a "faintly fragrant, pleasant" odor, and lack a distinctive taste. They are considered inedible.
In deposit
Spore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
, the spores are white. The spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s are 3.4–4.7 by 2.2–3.4 µm, ellipsoid to ovoid in shape, and amyloid
Amyloid
Amyloids are insoluble fibrous protein aggregates sharing specific structural traits. Abnormal accumulation of amyloid in organs may lead to amyloidosis, and may play a role in various neurodegenerative diseases.-Definition:...
. Most have a single large oil drop. The spore-bearing cells (the basidia) are club-shaped, 12–16 µm long by 5.7–7.7 µm thick, with four thin, slightly curved sterigmata that are 3.4–4.3 µm long. The hyphal system is monomitic, meaning that there are only thin-walled skeletal hypha
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
e present. These hyphae are typically 6–17 µm, with thin walls (up to 1 µm thick), and hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
(translucent). Although they are nonamyloid
Amyloid (mycology)
In mycology the term amyloid refers to a crude chemical test using iodine in either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, to produce a black to blue-black positive reaction. It is called amyloid because starch gives a similar reaction, and that reaction for starch is also called an amyloid reaction...
(not absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent
Melzer's Reagent
Melzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
), some hyphae have internal masses that are colored pale bluish-gray to black, which makes them appear collectively grayish-black under the microscope.
Similar species
Albatrellus ovinusAlbatrellus ovinus
Albatrellus ovinus is a terrestrial polypore fungus found in Northern Europe. It is very closely related to the more common A. subrubescens, from which it may be distinguished microscopically by the amyloid spore wall. It is edible and sold commercially in Finland.-Similar species:Albatrellus...
is similar in appearance, however, A. subrubescens often has a violet color. Microscopically, the spores of A. subrubescens are amyloid, while the ones of A. ovinus are not, and A. ovinus has smaller spores, typically 3.8–4.6 by 3.3–3.5 µm. In general, A. subrubescens can be distinguished from other Albatrellus species by its white cap that becomes orange when bruised, its simple-septate hyphae, small amyloid spores, and habitat under Pinus. Other closely related species include A. cantharellus and A. tianschanicus, which differ from A. subrubescens by the hairy scales on the cap surface, and because the scales of A. subrubescens are not much darker then the area between the scales. A. confluens
Albatrellus confluens
Albatrellus confluens is a species of fungus in the genus Albatrellaceae....
has caps that are colored pinkish-buff to pale orange, and white flesh that dries to a pinkish-buff; it has a taste that is bitter, or like cabbage. The spores of A. confluens are weakly amyloid.
Distribution and habitat
Terrestrial animal
Terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land , as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water , or amphibians, which rely on a combination of aquatic and terrestrial habitats...
, not found on wood. The species has been reported from a variety of locations in central Europe, North America, In western North America, its distribution includes Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
, Alberta
Alberta
Alberta is a province of Canada. It had an estimated population of 3.7 million in 2010 making it the most populous of Canada's three prairie provinces...
, California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, Northwest Territories
Northwest Territories
The Northwest Territories is a federal territory of Canada.Located in northern Canada, the territory borders Canada's two other territories, Yukon to the west and Nunavut to the east, and three provinces: British Columbia to the southwest, and Alberta and Saskatchewan to the south...
, and Washington; The distribution extends south to Mexico (Chiapas
Chiapas
Chiapas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 118 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutierrez. Other important cites in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las...
). It is also found in the Gulf Coast region, from Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
to Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
. In Asia, it has been collected from China (Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
and Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
), and Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
(as A. cantharellus). It prefers to grow in pine woods, but has occasionally been associated with silver fir. Ginns, relating a personal communication with David Arora
David Arora
David Arora is an American mycologist, naturalist, and writer. He is the author of two popular books on mushroom identification, Mushrooms Demystified and All That the Rain Promises and More.......
, writes that Arora "found many clumps of basidiomes in a half hectare area covered mainly by a mixture of Pinus attenuata, manzanita
Manzanita
Manzanita is a common name for many species of the genus Arctostaphylos. They are evergreen shrubs or small trees present in the chaparral biome of western North America, where they occur from southern British Columbia, Washington to California, Arizona and New Mexico in the United States, and...
, huckleberry
Huckleberry
Huckleberry is a common name used in North America for several species of plants in two closely related genera in the family Ericaceae:* Vaccinium* GaylussaciaHuckleberry may also refer to:-Plants:...
, and a few scattered mandrones."
Bioactive compounds
Albatrellus subrubescens contains the bioactive compound scutigeral, which has antibioticAntibiotic
An antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of...
activity. This chemical is also found in the related species A. ovinus. Scutigeral interacts selectively to the dopamine receptor D1 subfamily
Dopamine receptor D1
Dopamine receptor D1, also known as DRD1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DRD1 gene.- Function :This gene encodes the D1 subtype of the dopamine receptor. The D1 subtype is the most abundant dopamine receptor in the central nervous system. This G-protein-coupled receptor stimulates...
(the most abundant dopamine receptor in the central nervous system, regulating neuronal growth and development, mediating some behavioral responses). A 1999 publication suggested that scutigeral had agonist
Agonist
An agonist is a chemical that binds to a receptor of a cell and triggers a response by that cell. Agonists often mimic the action of a naturally occurring substance...
ic activity at vanilloid receptors (a receptor
Receptor (biochemistry)
In biochemistry, a receptor is a molecule found on the surface of a cell, which receives specific chemical signals from neighbouring cells or the wider environment within an organism...
found on sensory nerve
Sensory nerve
Sensory nerves are nerves that receive sensory stimuli, such as how something feels and if it is painful, smooth, rough, etc.They are made up of nerve fibers, called sensory fibers .Sensory neurons are neurons that are activated by sensory input Sensory nerves are nerves that receive sensory...
s throughout the human body), specifically, that it influenced the uptake of calcium
Calcium
Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. However, a 2003 study failed to find any such pharmacological activity.
External links
- Fungi of Poland several photos