Alexander Crummell
Encyclopedia
Alexander Crummell was a pioneering African pastor, professor and African nationalist.
Born to a former slave, Boston Crummell, and freeborn
Charity Hicks, Alexander Crummell was seemingly destined to become an abolitionist. According to Crummell's own account, his paternal grandfather was an ethnic Temne born in Sierra Leone
, and was captured into slavery when he was around 13 years old. Both parents were active abolitionists, and the first African American newspaper
, Freedom's Journal
, was published within their home. Boston Crummell also instilled in his son a sense of unity with those blacks still living in Africa. His parents' influence and these early experiences within the abolitionist movement shaped Crummell’s values, beliefs, and actions throughout the rest of his life. For example, even as a boy in New York, Crummell worked for the American Anti-Slavery Society
.
Crummell began his formal education in the African Free School No. 2 and at home with private tutors. He then attended the Canal Street High School. After graduating, Crummell, along with his friend Henry Highland Garnet
, attended the Noyes Academy
in New Hampshire
. The school, however, was destroyed by a lynch mob and Crummell enrolled in the Oneida Institute
. While studying there, Crummell decided to become a priest within the Episcopalian
faith, and pursued that end with the same enthusiasm he had pursued the rest of his education. Unfortunately, Crummell was denied admission to the General Theological Seminary
solely because of his race. In spite of such discrimination, Crummell went on to receive holy orders
at the behest of several clergymen sympathetic to his position and was ordained in 1842. As he struggled against ambivalence and low attendance, Crummell took a trip to Philadelphia to petition an audience with the Bishop to argue for a large audience to preach his message. Bishop Onderdonk
replied that "I will receive you into this diocese
on one condition: No negro priest can sit in my church convention and no negro church must ask for representation there." Crummell is said to have paused for a moment, made up his mind and said, "I will never enter your diocese on such terms."
to raise money for his congregation at the Church of the Messiah. While there, Crummell preached, spoke about abolitionism in the United States, and raised almost $2,000. Crummell was also interested in attending either the University of Oxford
or that at Cambridge
, and when such an opportunity presented itself, he grabbed it. From 1849 to 1853, Crummell studied at Queens' College, Cambridge
, sponsored by Benjamin Brodie, Wilberforce
, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley
, James Anthony Froude
and Thomas Babington Macaulay, although he had to take his finals twice to receive his degree.
During his time at the Cambridge, Crummell continued to travel around Britain and speak out about slavery and the plight of the black people. Crummell formulated his most central belief for the advancement of the African race
, Pan-Africanism
, during this epoch. Crummell believed that in order to achieve their potential, the African race as a whole, including those in the Americas
, the West Indies, and Africa
, needed to unify under the banner of race. Racial solidarity, to him, was the solution to slavery
, discrimination, and continued attacks on the African race. To that end, Crummell decided to move to Africa to spread his message.
He arrived in Liberia
in 1853, at the point in that country's history
when Americo-Liberian
s had begun to govern. Crummell came as a missionary
of the American Episcopal Church
, with the stated aim of converting the native people
. Though previously against colonization, experiences in Liberia changed his mind and he became convinced of its benefits (see Civilizing mission
). Crummell wove colonization into his Pan-African ideology, preaching that "enlightened," or Christianized , Africans in the United States and the West Indies had a duty to come back to Africa. There, they would help civilize and Christianize the continent
. When enough native Africans had been converted, they would take over converting the rest of the population while those from America and the West Indies would continue to educate the people and run a republican government. Crummell’s grand scheme never came to fruition, with interest in colonization waning and the failure of "enlightened" blacks to perform the duty he had laid out for them. While he did successfully serve as both a pastor and professor in Liberia, Crummell was never able to set up the government and society he dreamed of. In 1873, he returned to the United States.
Once back on American soil, Crummell took on the task of running St. Mary’s Episcopal Mission. He was rector of St. Luke's Episcopal Church
in Washington, D. C. from 1875 to 1894. Despite prior frustrations, he never stopped working for the racial solidarity he had advocated for so long. Throughout his life, Crummell continued to work for black nationalism
, self-help
, and separate economic development
. He spent the last years of his life setting up the American Negro Academy, which opened in 1897. Alexander Crummell died in Red Bank, New Jersey
in 1898.
, Paul Laurence Dunbar
, and W. E. B. Du Bois. Du Bois paid tribute to Crummell with a memorable essay entitled "Of Alexander Crummell," collected in his 1903 book, The Souls of Black Folk
.
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante
listed Alexander Crummell on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans
.
on September 10.
Born to a former slave, Boston Crummell, and freeborn
Freeborn
"Freeborn" is a term associated with political agitator John Lilburne , a member of the Levellers, a 17th-century English political party. As a word, "freeborn" means to be born free, rather than to be born in slavery or bondage or vassalage...
Charity Hicks, Alexander Crummell was seemingly destined to become an abolitionist. According to Crummell's own account, his paternal grandfather was an ethnic Temne born in Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone , officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of and has an estimated population between 5.4 and 6.4...
, and was captured into slavery when he was around 13 years old. Both parents were active abolitionists, and the first African American newspaper
African American newspapers
African American newspapers are those newspapers in the United States that seek readers primarily of African American descent. These newspapers came into existence in 1827 when Samuel Cornish and John Brown Russwurm started the first African-American periodical called Freedom's Journal...
, Freedom's Journal
Freedom's Journal
Freedom's Journal was the first African American owned and operated newspaper published in the United States. Published weekly in New York City from 16 March 1827 to 28 March 1829, the journal was edited by John Russwurm and co-editor, Samuel Cornish who contributed only through 14 September 1827...
, was published within their home. Boston Crummell also instilled in his son a sense of unity with those blacks still living in Africa. His parents' influence and these early experiences within the abolitionist movement shaped Crummell’s values, beliefs, and actions throughout the rest of his life. For example, even as a boy in New York, Crummell worked for the American Anti-Slavery Society
American Anti-Slavery Society
The American Anti-Slavery Society was an abolitionist society founded by William Lloyd Garrison and Arthur Tappan. Frederick Douglass was a key leader of this society and often spoke at its meetings. William Wells Brown was another freed slave who often spoke at meetings. By 1838, the society had...
.
Crummell began his formal education in the African Free School No. 2 and at home with private tutors. He then attended the Canal Street High School. After graduating, Crummell, along with his friend Henry Highland Garnet
Henry Highland Garnet
Henry Highland Garnet was an African American abolitionist and orator. An advocate of militant abolitionism, Garnet was a prominent member of the abolition movement that led against moral suasion toward more political action. Renowned for his skills as a public speaker, he urged blacks to take...
, attended the Noyes Academy
Noyes Academy
Noyes Academy was an experimental interracial school founded in 1835 in Canaan, New Hampshire, USA. The school was demolished in less than a year by opponents of interracial education....
in New Hampshire
New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian...
. The school, however, was destroyed by a lynch mob and Crummell enrolled in the Oneida Institute
George Washington Gale
George Washington Gale was born in Stanford, New York and became a Presbyterian minister in western New York state. A graduate of Union College in 1814, and Princeton Theological Seminary in 1819...
. While studying there, Crummell decided to become a priest within the Episcopalian
Episcopal Church (United States)
The Episcopal Church is a mainline Anglican Christian church found mainly in the United States , but also in Honduras, Taiwan, Colombia, Ecuador, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, the British Virgin Islands and parts of Europe...
faith, and pursued that end with the same enthusiasm he had pursued the rest of his education. Unfortunately, Crummell was denied admission to the General Theological Seminary
General Theological Seminary
The General Theological Seminary of the Episcopal Church is a seminary of the Episcopal Church in the United States and is located in the Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan in New York....
solely because of his race. In spite of such discrimination, Crummell went on to receive holy orders
Holy Orders
The term Holy Orders is used by many Christian churches to refer to ordination or to those individuals ordained for a special role or ministry....
at the behest of several clergymen sympathetic to his position and was ordained in 1842. As he struggled against ambivalence and low attendance, Crummell took a trip to Philadelphia to petition an audience with the Bishop to argue for a large audience to preach his message. Bishop Onderdonk
Henry Ustick Onderdonk
Henry Ustick Onderdonk was the second Episcopal bishop of Pennsylvania.-Early life:Onderdonk was born in New York City. He studied at Columbia University, receiving his degree in 1805, and then traveled to Britain for further education, receiving his medical degree from the University of Edinburgh...
replied that "I will receive you into this diocese
Diocese
A diocese is the district or see under the supervision of a bishop. It is divided into parishes.An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese. An archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or had importance due to size or historical significance...
on one condition: No negro priest can sit in my church convention and no negro church must ask for representation there." Crummell is said to have paused for a moment, made up his mind and said, "I will never enter your diocese on such terms."
Career
In 1847, Crummell traveled to EnglandEngland
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
to raise money for his congregation at the Church of the Messiah. While there, Crummell preached, spoke about abolitionism in the United States, and raised almost $2,000. Crummell was also interested in attending either the University of Oxford
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...
or that at Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
, and when such an opportunity presented itself, he grabbed it. From 1849 to 1853, Crummell studied at Queens' College, Cambridge
Queens' College, Cambridge
Queens' College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England.The college was founded in 1448 by Margaret of Anjou , and refounded in 1465 by Elizabeth Woodville...
, sponsored by Benjamin Brodie, Wilberforce
William Wilberforce
William Wilberforce was a British politician, a philanthropist and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire...
, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley was an English churchman, Dean of Westminster, known as Dean Stanley. His position was that of a Broad Churchman and he was the author of works on Church History.-Life and times:...
, James Anthony Froude
James Anthony Froude
James Anthony Froude , 23 April 1818–20 October 1894, was an English historian, novelist, biographer, and editor of Fraser's Magazine. From his upbringing amidst the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Froude intended to become a clergyman, but doubts about the doctrines of the Anglican church,...
and Thomas Babington Macaulay, although he had to take his finals twice to receive his degree.
During his time at the Cambridge, Crummell continued to travel around Britain and speak out about slavery and the plight of the black people. Crummell formulated his most central belief for the advancement of the African race
African people
African people refers to natives, inhabitants, or citizen of Africa and to people of African descent.-Etymology:Many etymological hypotheses that have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":...
, Pan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism is a movement that seeks to unify African people or people living in Africa, into a "one African community". Differing types of Pan-Africanism seek different levels of economic, racial, social, or political unity...
, during this epoch. Crummell believed that in order to achieve their potential, the African race as a whole, including those in the Americas
Americas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
, the West Indies, and Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, needed to unify under the banner of race. Racial solidarity, to him, was the solution to slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
, discrimination, and continued attacks on the African race. To that end, Crummell decided to move to Africa to spread his message.
He arrived in Liberia
Liberia
Liberia , officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Sierra Leone on the west, Guinea on the north and Côte d'Ivoire on the east. Liberia's coastline is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the more sparsely populated inland consists of forests that open...
in 1853, at the point in that country's history
History of Liberia
Liberia was set up by citizens of the United States as a colony for former African-American slaves. It is one of only two sovereign states in the world that were started by citizens of a political power as a colony for former slaves of the same political power: Sierra Leone was begun as a colony...
when Americo-Liberian
Americo-Liberian
Americo-Liberians are a Liberian ethnicity of African American descent. The sister ethnic group of Americo Liberians are the Sierra Leone Creole people who are of African American, West Indian, and liberated African descent...
s had begun to govern. Crummell came as a missionary
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
of the American Episcopal Church
Episcopal Church (United States)
The Episcopal Church is a mainline Anglican Christian church found mainly in the United States , but also in Honduras, Taiwan, Colombia, Ecuador, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, the British Virgin Islands and parts of Europe...
, with the stated aim of converting the native people
Christianization
The historical phenomenon of Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at once...
. Though previously against colonization, experiences in Liberia changed his mind and he became convinced of its benefits (see Civilizing mission
Civilizing mission
is a rationale for intervention or colonisation, proposing to contribute to the spread of civilization, mostly amounting to the Westernization of indigenous peoples....
). Crummell wove colonization into his Pan-African ideology, preaching that "enlightened," or Christianized , Africans in the United States and the West Indies had a duty to come back to Africa. There, they would help civilize and Christianize the continent
Christianity in Africa
Christianity is now one of the two most widely practised religions in Africa and is the largest religion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most adherents outside Egypt, Ethiopia and Eritrea are Roman Catholic or Protestant. The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in...
. When enough native Africans had been converted, they would take over converting the rest of the population while those from America and the West Indies would continue to educate the people and run a republican government. Crummell’s grand scheme never came to fruition, with interest in colonization waning and the failure of "enlightened" blacks to perform the duty he had laid out for them. While he did successfully serve as both a pastor and professor in Liberia, Crummell was never able to set up the government and society he dreamed of. In 1873, he returned to the United States.
Once back on American soil, Crummell took on the task of running St. Mary’s Episcopal Mission. He was rector of St. Luke's Episcopal Church
St. Luke's Episcopal Church (Washington, D.C.)
St. Luke's Episcopal Church is a historic Episcopal church located at 1514 15th Street,N.W., in Washington, D.C.. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and further was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1976.-History:...
in Washington, D. C. from 1875 to 1894. Despite prior frustrations, he never stopped working for the racial solidarity he had advocated for so long. Throughout his life, Crummell continued to work for black nationalism
Black nationalism
Black nationalism advocates a racial definition of indigenous national identity, as opposed to multiculturalism. There are different indigenous nationalist philosophies but the principles of all African nationalist ideologies are unity, and self-determination or independence from European society...
, self-help
Self-help
Self-help, or self-improvement, is a self-guided improvement—economically, intellectually, or emotionally—often with a substantial psychological basis. There are many different self-help movements and each has its own focus, techniques, associated beliefs, proponents and in some cases, leaders...
, and separate economic development
Economic development
Economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerted actions of policymakers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area...
. He spent the last years of his life setting up the American Negro Academy, which opened in 1897. Alexander Crummell died in Red Bank, New Jersey
Red Bank, New Jersey
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 11,844 people, 5,201 households, and 2,501 families residing in the borough. The population density was 6,639.1 people per square mile . There were 5,450 housing units at an average density of 3,055.0 per square mile...
in 1898.
Influence
Though most of his work never produced the intended results, Crummell was an important voice within the abolition movement and a vocal leader of the Pan-African ideology. His achievements, which include a college education, becoming a priest, and setting up the American Negro Academy, are nothing less than impressive. His contributions to the academic world, via his sermons and written works, leave the impression of a well-educated, well-spoken, and well-written black man who believed deeply and fervently in the Pan-African idea and worked most of his life to achieve it. Crummell's legacy can be seen not in his personal achievements, but in the influence he exerted on other black nationalists and Pan-Africanists, such as Marcus GarveyMarcus Garvey
Marcus Mosiah Garvey, Jr., ONH was a Jamaican publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch proponent of the Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements, to which end he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League...
, Paul Laurence Dunbar
Paul Laurence Dunbar
Paul Laurence Dunbar was a seminal African American poet of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dunbar gained national recognition for his 1896 "Ode to Ethiopia", one poem in the collection Lyrics of Lowly Life....
, and W. E. B. Du Bois. Du Bois paid tribute to Crummell with a memorable essay entitled "Of Alexander Crummell," collected in his 1903 book, The Souls of Black Folk
The Souls of Black Folk
The Souls of Black Folk is a classic work of American literature by W. E. B. Du Bois. It is a seminal work in the history of sociology, and a cornerstone of African-American literary history....
.
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante
Molefi Kete Asante
Molefi Kete Asante is an African-American scholar, historian, and philosopher. He is a leading figure in the fields of African American studies, African Studies and Communication Studies...
listed Alexander Crummell on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans
100 Greatest African Americans
100 Greatest African Americans is a biographical dictionary of the one hundred historically greatest African Americans , as assessed by Molefi Kete Asante in 2002.-Criteria:...
.
Veneration
Crummell is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA)Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)
The veneration of saints in the Episcopal Church is a continuation of an ancient tradition from the early Church which honors important people of the Christian faith. The usage of the term "saint" is similar to Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions. Those in the Anglo-Catholic tradition may...
on September 10.
See also
- National Afro-American LeagueNational Afro-American LeagueThe National Afro-American League was formed on January 25, 1890 by Timothy Thomas Fortune. Preceding the foundation of the NAACP, the organization dedicated itself to racial solidarity and self-help. The organization became defunct in 1893 due to lack of support and funding.In September 1898,...
, set up in 1890 and based on racial solidarity and self-help - Black separatismBlack separatismBlack separatism is a movement to create separate institutions for people of African descent in societies historically dominated by whites, particularly in the United States. Black separatists also often seek a separate homeland...
, as distinguished from black nationalismBlack nationalismBlack nationalism advocates a racial definition of indigenous national identity, as opposed to multiculturalism. There are different indigenous nationalist philosophies but the principles of all African nationalist ideologies are unity, and self-determination or independence from European society...