Amanita regalis
Encyclopedia
Amanita regalis, commonly known as the royal fly agaric or the king of Sweden Amanita, is a species of fungus
in the Amanitaceae
family. Common in Scandinavian countries, it is also found in eastern and northern Europe. In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska
. The fruit bodies
of the fungus somewhat resemble the fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria
), and it was formerly regarded as a variety of this species. A. regalis differs from it in being larger, with a liver-brown cap
bearing numerous scabs, and in having a stem
which is yellow-ochre
at the base, with patches or rings of patches. Chemical analysis
has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid
and muscimol
, the same toxic components found in A. muscaria, but no muscarine
or tryptamine
derivatives have been found.
in his Systema Mycologicum
, published in 1821. In 1887, Pier Andrea Saccardo
treated it as a variety of Amanita muscaria. Edmund Michael, in 1903, became the first to consider it a distinct species. In 1941, Jean-Edouard Gilbert suggested a complete reorganization of the genus Amanita
in his world monograph
of the genus, and moved it to Amanitaria as A. muscaria var. regalis. In his original (1949) version of Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, Rolf Singer
considered it a subspecies
of A. muscaria, but noted that it may be regarded as a separate species; in his fourth edition (1986), he listed it as a distinct species. A regalis is classified in a section of Amanita within the genus, a grouping of related Amanitas that have a ring
on the stem
(or remnants thereof), and a bulb at the base of it. More recently, a Japanese group studied the biogeography
of A. muscaria and related species, and, using molecular phylogenetic analysis, concluded that the taxon should be considered a grouping of A. muscaria, rather than a distinct species. However, as of 2009, both Index Fungorum
and MycoBank
list the taxon as Amanita regalis.
The species has been called by several vernacular
names, including the "royal fly agaric", the "king of Sweden Amanita", the "brown fly agaric", or the king fly agaric. In France it is known as Amanite royale, while in Germany it is Königsfliegenpilz. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin
word regalis, meaning "royal". In 2000, it was selected by the German Mycological Society as "Mushroom of the Year".
of the fungus is a reproductive structure that appears when appropriate environmental conditions of moisture, temperature, and nutrient availability are met. The cap
of A. regalis is 10 to 25 cm (3.9 to 9.8 in) broad, and, depending on the stage of its development, can range in shape from spherical to convex to somewhat flattened. The color is yellowish brown, and it is densely covered with yellowish to light ochraceous
scabby warts, which are arranged in almost regular concentric rings. The rings are a remnant of the volva
left behind during expansion of the young fruit body. The cap is fleshy and when mature has grooves on the margin, which can extend 1.5 to 2 cm (0.590551181102362 to 0.78740157480315 in). The cap cuticle
may be separated from the cap by peeling, to almost the center.
The gills are crowded close together, free from attachment to the stem, and white with a creamy yellow tinge. The edges of the gills are floccose, meaning they have tufts of soft wooly hairs—another volval remnant. The stem
of a mature individual is typically between 10 and 14 cm (3.9 and 5.5 in) long and 1.5 to 2 cm (0.590551181102362 to 0.78740157480315 in) wide, and spreads at the base into a bulb ornamented with 2–4 rings of small squamulose, lemon or ochre-yellow warts. The entire stem and ring are not pure white but have a faint yellowish tinge. The flesh
is whitish, faintly yellowish in the stem, and golden yellow under the cuticle of the cap. It does not change color in air, and has an insignificant taste and smell.
(translucent), smooth, and have dimensions of 9–12 by 7–8 µm
. They are non-amyloid, meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent
. The spore-producing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped, measure 38–46 by 3–13 µm, and have clamps at their bases.
forests, both deciduous and coniferous. It is a mycorrhizal fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below-ground threads, the mycelium
, envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed minerals
, trace element
s and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through photosynthesis
. A. regalis has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with birch
, Scots pine
, Mountain pine
, and Norway spruce
.
In Europe it is more common in northern than south Europe, and it has not been reported from south and west Europe. In addition to being common in Scandinavia
n countries, it has been collected in Germany
, Hungary
, Latvia
, Russia, Slovakia
, and Korea
. In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska
, where it is usually found above the tree line.
. A case of poisoning
was reported from Finland
, where three individuals believed they had consumed the edible
parasol mushroom Macrolepiota procera. The symptoms of poisoning, which began 1–2 hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, were gastrointestinal—nausea and heavy vomiting. Two had central nervous system
manifestations and cholinergic
symptoms, including hallucination
s, confusion
, or loss of consciousness as well as profuse salivation, or sweating. All three individuals recovered within 4–24 hours without any damage to liver
, kidney
s or the central nervous system. As this incident demonstrates, cooking the mushrooms does not completely neutralize the toxic components of Amanita regalis. Chemical analysis
has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid
and muscimol
, the same toxic constituents of the ordinary fly agaric. However, no muscarine
or tryptamine
derivatives have been found.
Amanita regalis has the ability to bioaccumulate
the heavy metal vanadium
, a phenomenon first reported in Amanita muscaria in 1931. A field study of Scandinavian specimens found vanadium contents ranging from 38 to 169 mg of vanadium per kg of dry mushroom (average of 119 mg/kg). For comparison, the vanadium concentration in most other mushrooms is typically less than 2 mg/kg.
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the Amanitaceae
Amanitaceae
Amanitaceae are a family of fungi or mushrooms. The family, also commonly called the Amanita family, is in order Agaricales, gilled mushrooms...
family. Common in Scandinavian countries, it is also found in eastern and northern Europe. In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
. The fruit bodies
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
of the fungus somewhat resemble the fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria
Amanita muscaria
Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita , is a poisonous and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita...
), and it was formerly regarded as a variety of this species. A. regalis differs from it in being larger, with a liver-brown cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
bearing numerous scabs, and in having a stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
which is yellow-ochre
Ochre
Ochre is the term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as "red ochre". The more rarely used terms "purple ochre" and "brown ochre" also exist for variant hues...
at the base, with patches or rings of patches. Chemical analysis
Analytical chemistry
Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Qualitative analysis gives an indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample and quantitative analysis determines the amount of...
has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid is a chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina, among others...
and muscimol
Muscimol
Muscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocin , which is a serotonergic psychedelic and agonist for the 5-HT2A receptor set, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist for the GABAA receptor set and is a deliriant as a opposed...
, the same toxic components found in A. muscaria, but no muscarine
Muscarine
Muscarine, L--muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested...
or tryptamine
Tryptamine
Tryptamine is a monoamine alkaloid found in plants, fungi, and animals. It is based around the indole ring structure, and is chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan, from which its name is derived...
derivatives have been found.
Taxonomy and naming
Amanita regalis was first described as Agaricus muscarius ß regalis by Elias Magnus FriesElias Magnus Fries
-External links:*, Authors of fungal names, Mushroom, the Journal of Wild Mushrooming.*...
in his Systema Mycologicum
Systema Mycologicum
Systema Mycologicum is a systematic classification of fungi drawn up in 1821 by the Swedish mycologist and botanist Elias Fries. It took 11 years to complete....
, published in 1821. In 1887, Pier Andrea Saccardo
Pier Andrea Saccardo
Pier Andrea Saccardo was an Italian botanist and mycologist.- Life :...
treated it as a variety of Amanita muscaria. Edmund Michael, in 1903, became the first to consider it a distinct species. In 1941, Jean-Edouard Gilbert suggested a complete reorganization of the genus Amanita
Amanita
The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own...
in his world monograph
Monograph
A monograph is a work of writing upon a single subject, usually by a single author.It is often a scholarly essay or learned treatise, and may be released in the manner of a book or journal article. It is by definition a single document that forms a complete text in itself...
of the genus, and moved it to Amanitaria as A. muscaria var. regalis. In his original (1949) version of Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer was a German-born mycologist and one of the most important taxonomists of gilled mushrooms in the 20th century....
considered it a subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
of A. muscaria, but noted that it may be regarded as a separate species; in his fourth edition (1986), he listed it as a distinct species. A regalis is classified in a section of Amanita within the genus, a grouping of related Amanitas that have a ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
on the stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
(or remnants thereof), and a bulb at the base of it. More recently, a Japanese group studied the biogeography
Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species , organisms, and ecosystems in space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area...
of A. muscaria and related species, and, using molecular phylogenetic analysis, concluded that the taxon should be considered a grouping of A. muscaria, rather than a distinct species. However, as of 2009, both Index Fungorum
Index Fungorum
Index Fungorum, an international project to index all formal names in the Fungi Kingdom. Somewhat comparable to the IPNI, but with more contributing institutions....
and MycoBank
MycoBank
MycoBank is an online database, documenting new mycological names and combinations, eventually combined with descriptions and illustrations. It is run by the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures fungal biodiversity center in Utrecht....
list the taxon as Amanita regalis.
The species has been called by several vernacular
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
names, including the "royal fly agaric", the "king of Sweden Amanita", the "brown fly agaric", or the king fly agaric. In France it is known as Amanite royale, while in Germany it is Königsfliegenpilz. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
word regalis, meaning "royal". In 2000, it was selected by the German Mycological Society as "Mushroom of the Year".
Description
Like all Amanita species, the bulk of the organism lies beneath the ground as a symbiotic partner to certain species of trees. The fruit bodySporocarp (fungi)
In fungi, the sporocarp is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne...
of the fungus is a reproductive structure that appears when appropriate environmental conditions of moisture, temperature, and nutrient availability are met. The cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
of A. regalis is 10 to 25 cm (3.9 to 9.8 in) broad, and, depending on the stage of its development, can range in shape from spherical to convex to somewhat flattened. The color is yellowish brown, and it is densely covered with yellowish to light ochraceous
Ochre
Ochre is the term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as "red ochre". The more rarely used terms "purple ochre" and "brown ochre" also exist for variant hues...
scabby warts, which are arranged in almost regular concentric rings. The rings are a remnant of the volva
Volva (mycology)
The volva is a mycological term to describe a cup-like structure at the base of a mushroom that is a remnant of the universal veil. This macrofeature is important in wild mushroom identification due to it being an easily observed, taxonomically significant feature which frequently signifies a...
left behind during expansion of the young fruit body. The cap is fleshy and when mature has grooves on the margin, which can extend 1.5 to 2 cm (0.590551181102362 to 0.78740157480315 in). The cap cuticle
Pileipellis
thumb|300px||right|The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as [[Russula mustelina]] shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature....
may be separated from the cap by peeling, to almost the center.
The gills are crowded close together, free from attachment to the stem, and white with a creamy yellow tinge. The edges of the gills are floccose, meaning they have tufts of soft wooly hairs—another volval remnant. The stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
of a mature individual is typically between 10 and 14 cm (3.9 and 5.5 in) long and 1.5 to 2 cm (0.590551181102362 to 0.78740157480315 in) wide, and spreads at the base into a bulb ornamented with 2–4 rings of small squamulose, lemon or ochre-yellow warts. The entire stem and ring are not pure white but have a faint yellowish tinge. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
is whitish, faintly yellowish in the stem, and golden yellow under the cuticle of the cap. It does not change color in air, and has an insignificant taste and smell.
Microscopic features
The spores are broadly ellipsoid to roughly spherical, hyalineHyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
(translucent), smooth, and have dimensions of 9–12 by 7–8 µm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
. They are non-amyloid, meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent
Melzer's Reagent
Melzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
. The spore-producing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped, measure 38–46 by 3–13 µm, and have clamps at their bases.
Similar species
Amanita regalis is easily distinguished from A. muscaria by the absence of any red color in the cap, and the yellow patches on the stem. If it is a form that has a pale-colored, yellowish-brown cap, Amanita regalis may be confused with the blusher (Amanita rubescens, edible). The latter species can be identified by the flesh-colored tinge it stains when cut or bruised, and also by the color of the flesh underneath the cuticle: A. regalis is yellowish while A. rubescens is white. Amanita pantherina has a similar color, but has white flesh below the cap cuticle, and a cup-shaped bulb with distinct margins around the edge.Habitat and distribution
Amanita regalis is a rare species typically found growing on the ground in mountainousMontane
In biogeography, montane is the highland area located below the subalpine zone. Montane regions generally have cooler temperatures and often have higher rainfall than the adjacent lowland regions, and are frequently home to distinct communities of plants and animals.The term "montane" means "of the...
forests, both deciduous and coniferous. It is a mycorrhizal fungus, and exists in a symbiotic relationship with certain tree species. The system of fine below-ground threads, the mycelium
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
, envelopes the roots of the trees and supplies them with needed minerals
Dietary mineral
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in common organic molecules. Examples of mineral elements include calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc, and iodine...
, trace element
Trace element
In analytical chemistry, a trace element is an element in a sample that has an average concentration of less than 100 parts per million measured in atomic count, or less than 100 micrograms per gram....
s and water from the soil, while the tree, in turn, supplies the fungus with food from its own supply, which it produces through photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
. A. regalis has been shown experimentally to form mycorrhiza with birch
Birch
Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
, Scots pine
Scots Pine
Pinus sylvestris, commonly known as the Scots Pine, is a species of pine native to Europe and Asia, ranging from Scotland, Ireland and Portugal in the west, east to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains, and as far north as well inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia...
, Mountain pine
Mountain Pine
Pinus mugo, the Mountain Pine or Mugo Pine, is a high-altitude European pine, found in the Pyrenees, Alps, Erzgebirge, Carpathians, northern Apennines and Balkan Peninsula mountains from 1,000 m to 2,200 m, occasionally as low as 200 m in the north of the range in Germany and Poland, and as high...
, and Norway spruce
Norway Spruce
Norway Spruce is a species of spruce native to Europe. It is also commonly referred to as the European Spruce.- Description :...
.
In Europe it is more common in northern than south Europe, and it has not been reported from south and west Europe. In addition to being common in Scandinavia
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
n countries, it has been collected in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
, Russia, Slovakia
Slovakia
The Slovak Republic is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about . Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south...
, and Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
. In North America, its distribution is restricted to Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
, where it is usually found above the tree line.
Toxicity
Amanita regalis is poisonousMushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning refers to harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells...
. A case of poisoning
Mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning refers to harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells...
was reported from Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, where three individuals believed they had consumed the edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
parasol mushroom Macrolepiota procera. The symptoms of poisoning, which began 1–2 hours after ingestion of the mushrooms, were gastrointestinal—nausea and heavy vomiting. Two had central nervous system
Central nervous system
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
manifestations and cholinergic
Cholinergic
The word choline generally refers to the various quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation. Found in most animal tissues, choline is a primary component of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and functions with inositol as a basic constituent of lecithin...
symptoms, including hallucination
Hallucination
A hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are defined as perceptions in a conscious and awake state in the absence of external stimuli which have qualities of real perception, in that they are vivid,...
s, confusion
Mental confusion
Confusion of a pathological degree usually refers to loss of orientation sometimes accompanied by disordered consciousness and often memory Confusion (from Latin confusĭo, -ōnis, noun of action from confundere "to pour together", also "to confuse") of a pathological degree usually refers to loss...
, or loss of consciousness as well as profuse salivation, or sweating. All three individuals recovered within 4–24 hours without any damage to liver
Liver
The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion...
, kidney
Kidney
The kidneys, organs with several functions, serve essential regulatory roles in most animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are essential in the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid–base balance, and...
s or the central nervous system. As this incident demonstrates, cooking the mushrooms does not completely neutralize the toxic components of Amanita regalis. Chemical analysis
Analytical chemistry
Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Qualitative analysis gives an indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample and quantitative analysis determines the amount of...
has shown that this species contains ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid
Ibotenic acid is a chemical compound that is naturally occurring in the mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina, among others...
and muscimol
Muscimol
Muscimol is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Unlike psilocin , which is a serotonergic psychedelic and agonist for the 5-HT2A receptor set, muscimol is a potent, selective agonist for the GABAA receptor set and is a deliriant as a opposed...
, the same toxic constituents of the ordinary fly agaric. However, no muscarine
Muscarine
Muscarine, L--muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested...
or tryptamine
Tryptamine
Tryptamine is a monoamine alkaloid found in plants, fungi, and animals. It is based around the indole ring structure, and is chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan, from which its name is derived...
derivatives have been found.
Amanita regalis has the ability to bioaccumulate
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost...
the heavy metal vanadium
Vanadium
Vanadium is a chemical element with the symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard, silvery gray, ductile and malleable transition metal. The formation of an oxide layer stabilizes the metal against oxidation. The element is found only in chemically combined form in nature...
, a phenomenon first reported in Amanita muscaria in 1931. A field study of Scandinavian specimens found vanadium contents ranging from 38 to 169 mg of vanadium per kg of dry mushroom (average of 119 mg/kg). For comparison, the vanadium concentration in most other mushrooms is typically less than 2 mg/kg.