Anatolius (Osroene)
Encyclopedia
Anatolius was a Byzantine
official, active in the reign of Tiberius II Constantine
(r. 574–582). He was a topoteretes (deputy) of the praetorian prefecture of the East
and praeses
(provincial governor) of Osroene
. He was accused of being a crypto-pagan
and consequently executed.
, and John of Ephesus
. There are mentions of him in the works of Michael the Syrian
and Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos.
reports: "Anatolius, who was originally one of the vulgar and an artisan
, but had subsequently, by some means or other, obtained admission into public offices and other posts of importance." He lived for some time in Antioch
, which was renamed at the time Theopolis ("City of God"). He conducted his business in the city and was personally acquainted with Patriarch Gregory of Antioch
(term 571–593). Evagrius remarks "In this city he was pursuing his engagements, from which resulted an intimacy with Gregory, president of that Church, and frequent visits to him, partly for the purpose of conversing on matters of business, and partly with a view to obtain greater influence on the ground of his intercourse with the prelate
."
By 579, Anatolius had risen to his highest post. John of Ephesus
describes Anatolius as "archon
and deputy praetorian prefect
" at Edessa
. This would make him a topoteretes (deputy) of the Praetorian prefecture of the East
and praeses
(provincial governor) of Osroene
, of which Edessa was the capital. One of the Novellae Constitutiones
("New Constitutions") mentions the topoteretes of Osroene and Mesopotamia
. This was the post Anatolius held and the reference might be to Anatolius himself.
in Baalbek
. Theophilus, an official who had previously faced revolts by Jews and Samaritans
, was tasked with locating said crypto-pagans. Suspects were arrested and interrogated under torture
, forced to name other "pagans". Soon Theophilus had lists of names, including prominent citizens spread throughout the eastern provinces of the Byzantine Empire
. The persecution spread to the rest of these provinces.
Theophilus was searching for Rufinus, a high priest
of the pagans, who "had lately gone on a visit to Anatolius". Theophilus followed the man to Edessa. He claimed to have interrupted a sacrifice to Zeus
/Jupiter
taking place within the city. John of Ephesus relates, "On their arrival they [Theophilus and his escort] learned that he [Rufinus] was dwelling there, and having waited for night, upon surrounding the house in order to arrest him, they found a feast of Zeus actually being celebrated by the heathens, and people assembled together with Rufinus to offer sacrifices. On becoming aware, however, that they were endeavouring to surround the house, those present took the alarm, and fled. But Rufinus knowing well that he had no place of refuge to which he could escape, drew his knife, and smote it into his heart, and having given himself also a wound in the abdomen, fell down dead."
Theophilus captured "a gouty old man, too feeble to flee, and an old woman". The two were interrogated under threat of death, forced to declare "the names of all who had taken part in these proceedings". They supposedly named several people, but only Anatolius is named in primary sources. Anatolius reportedly tried to create an alibi
for himself. He hastily dressed himself in the typical clothes of a traveller (travelling coat, leather leggings
and walking shoes) and then made a late-night visit to the residence of the Bishop of Edessa, pretending to have just returned from a journey. He hoped that the Bishop would testify about his supposed journey.
Anatolius' trick failed. He was soon arrested and forced to give surety
to appear in Antioch for his trial. John of Ephesus explains: "For just as he [Anatolius] left the bishop's presence, those who had been sent to arrest him met him, and laid hands upon him, and said, 'Come peaceably with us, my lord governor: we are greatly in need of your highness: give orders for bailsmen to be put in for you at a talent apiece, that within ten days you appear at Antioch.' But he in answer began to explain to them, and say, ' I have but just entered the city from a journey, as the bishop will bear testimony.' But they replied, ' It is no use playing us tricks, my lord governor. This very night you have been with Rufinus and the rest of your people, and have offered sacrifice to Zeus; and the witnesses are all ready to prove it.' And when upon this he threatened them with his power, and said, 'You are putting a stop to all matters of state;' they replied, 'Threaten us not, my lord governor: as your highness is a living man, you will not get away from hence without giving us bail.' And now finding that he had no choice, nor probability of escape, he consented, and gave bail, and set out immediately with them and their other prisoners for Antioch."
(secretary) Theodore. He protested his innocence and tried to prove being a genuine Christian
. He led people into his private residence, where they were able to examine an icon
of Jesus Christ. At the back of the icon however they reportedly found "skilfully introduced ... a likeness of Apollo
, so carefully done as not to be visible without looking closely at it. Horrified at the sight, the archers threw him [Anatolius] on the ground, and kicked him, and dragged him by the hair to the Praetorium
, where they declared all that had happened". He was forced to make a full confession.
Meanwhile, Theodore was subjected to torture
and flagellation
. His confession did not only implicate himself and Anatolius: he also accused Gregory of Antioch and Eulogius of Alexandria (later a patriarch, term 581–607) of participating in a human sacrifice
. John of Ephesus narrates: "That both Gregory, the patriarch of Antioch, and Eulogius, who was subsequently patriarch of Alexandria, had been present with them at the sacrifice of a boy, held by night at Daphne". Daphne was a suburb of Antioch
. Theodore died in prison. Contemporary rumour had it either "that really he was murdered, in order that his deposition might be got out of the way; but to the truth of this we will not bear testimony" or "as many thought, he killed himself, because the sentence of death was certain to be pronounced against him."
Anatolius was transported to Constantinople
to face a new trial, now judged by a special assembly. John of Ephesus reports that all accused crypto-pagans arriving at Constantinople were placed on trial by "a court ...consisting of magistrates
and jurist
s, to try them, and examine into the truth of the matter, upon oath that they would show no partiality, nor respect of persons." The trials took place within the Placidia Palace
and proceedings were kept secret. John notes: "Although a few facts transpired, it was in spite of their own efforts to conceal them. And after some time, men generally were convinced that bribery
was permitted, and prevailed over the truth".
The population of Constantinople started rioting, demanding no mercy for the prisoners. Among their slogans was: "Out with the bones of the heathens!" Tiberius II Constantine
reacted by adding to the members of the court every member of the Senate
available, presumably to make decisions more respected. He [Tiberius] "gave orders to all magistrates and senators to assemble together, in company with all men of patrician rank, and the subconsuls
, and those who bear the title of 'illustrious
', and the subprefects of the city, and all members of the senate. The place appointed for their meeting was the prefect's court, and all the depositions relating to the heathen were to be read before them, both of cases in the east and in the west; and whosoever was not present he gave orders that his girdle should be cut, and he should lose his office. In obedience to so strict a commandment they all met, and sat the whole day from morning till night fasting, and anxious". Anatolius' fate was left at the hands of this extended court, which would suggest that Anatolius was himself a member of the Senate, perhaps even a vir illustris
("illustrious man", high-ranking senator).
Anatolius was then thrown to the "wild beasts" of the Hippodrome of Constantinople
. They wounded him but were not allowed to kill him. His jailers had him "torn from their claws" and then crucified
. Evagrius argues that Anatolius suffered impalement
, then details the fate of his corpse. "Anatolius himself, after being first exposed to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre and mangled by them, was then impaled, without terminating even then his punishment in this world; for the wolves
, tearing down his polluted body, divided it as a feast among themselves; a circumstance never before noticed."
John mentions that an unnamed son of Theodore was seized by the crowds and burned alive. He might be part of the unnamed associates of Anatolius mentioned by Evagrius: "He [Anatolius] and his associates were the cause of still greater disturbances and a general rising of the populace: for, when some of the party had received sentence of banishment instead of death, the populace, inflamed with a sort of divine zeal, caused a general commotion, in their fury and indignation, and having seized the persons condemned to banishment and put them into a skiff, they committed them alive to the flames; such being the people's verdict."
Evagrius alludes to an unnamed "curator of the palace" who had protected Anatolius for a while, but changed his mind. This could be a curator domus divinae ("curator of the divine domains", administrator of the private property of the imperial family). Whitby has suggested that the man could be Magnus, known to have been curator of the palace of Hormisdas during the reign of Tiberius II Constantine. Magnus was from Syria, held an important financial office and could have had "close contacts with Anatolius".
perspective but seems more credible in this case.
Whitby also points out that Evagrius' account is lacking in context. John of Ephesus places Anatolius' arrest and trial among the events of the wider religious persecution. Whitby notes that the persecution started in Baalbek, which he describes as "a notoriously pagan city". He deduces that Christians had found it impossible to break the "monopoly of power", concentrated at the hands of the wealthy pagans of the city. This might have instigated the investigation of Theophilus and the entire affair. He also points to the house where Rufinus resided at Edessa, which Whitby deduces to have been the residence of Anatolius, making it hard for the governor to deny his connection to the high priest.
Whitby notes that Evagrius and John both feature an account of an icon helping condemn Anatolius, but that their accounts are completely different. Evagrius account offers the following miracle
: "Anatolius rushed to a certain image of the Mother of God
, which was suspended by a cord in the prison, and folding his hands behind his back, announced himself as a suppliant: but she, in detestation and conviction of the guilty and God-hated man, turned herself quite round, presenting a prodigy awful and worthy of perpetual remembrance; which, having been witnessed by all the prisoners as well as by those who had the charge of Anatolius and his associates, was thus published to the world".
Concerning the alleged human sacrifice, Whitby notes that John has the sacrifice immediately followed by "a terrible quaking". This seems a likely reference to the earthquake which affected Antioch in 577. The event is otherwise only recorded by Evagrius. Evagrius records: "In the third year of the administration of the empire by Tiberius [577], a violent earthquake befell Theopolis [Antioch] and its suburb of Daphne, precisely at noon; on which occasion the whole of that suburb was laid in utter ruin by the shocks, while the public and private buildings in Theopolis, though rent to the ground, were still not entirely levelled."
until a riot had forced him to renew persecution. Under constant threat of popular riots, the tolerant Tiberius turned into a persecutor of pagans and heretics. Whitby even makes direct allusions to the Inquisition
when describing this wave of persecution.
John Liebeschuetz sees the events as a regular "witch-hunt", where everyone is a suspect. He points out that many of the "pagans" executed were probably actual Christians. Whitby is not so certain. He points to the hagiography
of Simeon Stylites the Younger
, a contemporary of Anatolius, which alludes to the existence of prominent pagans in Antioch and its vicinity, with some of them even consulting the saint. Besides practicing pagans, this might indicate that there were people in the area "whose religious position was still ambivalent".
Liebeschuetz and other modern historians point to the involvement of the Monophysites
in these events. The last reign favorable to them was that of Anastasius I
(r. 491–518). Since 518, they were seen as heretics, with "their churches and monasteries ... liable to be confiscated, and their bishops to be exiled and imprisoned". Yet, they participated enthusiastically in the search for crypto-pagans. They were probably seeing it as an opportunity to discredit their enemies, since many of the "suspects" happened to be prominent Chalcedonians.
Antigone Samellas points out the term used by Evagrius for the corpse of Anatolius: "polluted". That is the Greek term "miaron", deriving from miasma
. This would suggest that Christians considered impure "the bodies of pagans who had been making sacrifices to the gods". She notes an earlier passage of Basil of Caesarea
which describes the relics of Jewish martyrs as abominable. She deduces that this was the general attitude against "everything that one's religious opponents regarded as sacred".
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
official, active in the reign of Tiberius II Constantine
Tiberius II Constantine
Tiberius II Constantine was Byzantine Emperor from 574 to 582.During his reign, Tiberius II Constantine gave away 7,200 pounds of gold each year for four years....
(r. 574–582). He was a topoteretes (deputy) of the praetorian prefecture of the East
Praetorian prefecture of the East
The praetorian prefecture of the East or of Oriens was one of four large praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided...
and praeses
Praeses
Praeses , is a Latin word meaning "Seated in front of, i.e. at the head ", has both ancient and modern uses.-Roman imperial use:...
(provincial governor) of Osroene
Osroene
Osroene, also spelled Osrohene and Osrhoene and sometimes known by the name of its capital city, Edessa , was a historic Syriac kingdom located in Mesopotamia, which enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BC to AD 244.It was a Syriac-speaking kingdom.Osroene, or...
. He was accused of being a crypto-pagan
Crypto-Paganism
Crypto-Pagans are pagan and neoplatonic groups that have had to pretend to be members of a mandated or mainstream religion while secretly practicing their true religion.-Neopaganism:...
and consequently executed.
Sources
Primary sources about him include Evagrius ScholasticusEvagrius Scholasticus
Evagrius Scholasticus was a Syrian scholar and intellectual living in the 6th century AD, and an aide to the patriarch Gregory of Antioch. His surviving work, Ecclesiastical History, comprises a six-volume collection concerning the Church's history from the First Council of Ephesus to Maurice’s...
, and John of Ephesus
John of Ephesus
John of Ephesus was a leader of the non-Chalcedonian Syriac-speaking Church in the sixth century, and one of the earliest and most important of historians who wrote in Syriac.-Life:...
. There are mentions of him in the works of Michael the Syrian
Michael the Syrian
Michael the Syrian , also known as Michael the Great or Michael Syrus or Michael the Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew, was a patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church from 1166 to 1199. He is best known today as the author of the largest medieval Chronicle, which he composed in Syriac...
and Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos.
Biography
Anatolius was apparently a man of humble origins. He eventually rose to high office, gaining in political significance. Evagrius ScholasticusEvagrius Scholasticus
Evagrius Scholasticus was a Syrian scholar and intellectual living in the 6th century AD, and an aide to the patriarch Gregory of Antioch. His surviving work, Ecclesiastical History, comprises a six-volume collection concerning the Church's history from the First Council of Ephesus to Maurice’s...
reports: "Anatolius, who was originally one of the vulgar and an artisan
Artisan
An artisan is a skilled manual worker who makes items that may be functional or strictly decorative, including furniture, clothing, jewellery, household items, and tools...
, but had subsequently, by some means or other, obtained admission into public offices and other posts of importance." He lived for some time in Antioch
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the...
, which was renamed at the time Theopolis ("City of God"). He conducted his business in the city and was personally acquainted with Patriarch Gregory of Antioch
Gregory of Antioch
Gregory of Antioch was the Greek Patriarch of Antioch from 571 to 593.Gregory of Antioch began as a monk in the monastery of the Byzantines in Jerusalem, or so we learn from Evagrius Scholasticus. He was transferred by the emperor Justin II to Sinai. He was abbot there when the monastery was...
(term 571–593). Evagrius remarks "In this city he was pursuing his engagements, from which resulted an intimacy with Gregory, president of that Church, and frequent visits to him, partly for the purpose of conversing on matters of business, and partly with a view to obtain greater influence on the ground of his intercourse with the prelate
Prelate
A prelate is a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin prælatus, the past participle of præferre, which means "carry before", "be set above or over" or "prefer"; hence, a prelate is one set over others.-Related...
."
By 579, Anatolius had risen to his highest post. John of Ephesus
John of Ephesus
John of Ephesus was a leader of the non-Chalcedonian Syriac-speaking Church in the sixth century, and one of the earliest and most important of historians who wrote in Syriac.-Life:...
describes Anatolius as "archon
Archon
Archon is a Greek word that means "ruler" or "lord", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem ἀρχ-, meaning "to rule", derived from the same root as monarch, hierarchy, and anarchy.- Ancient Greece :In ancient Greece the...
and deputy praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect
Praetorian prefect was the title of a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief aides...
" at Edessa
Edessa, Mesopotamia
Edessa is the Greek name of an Aramaic town in northern Mesopotamia, as refounded by Seleucus I Nicator. For the modern history of the city, see Şanlıurfa.-Names:...
. This would make him a topoteretes (deputy) of the Praetorian prefecture of the East
Praetorian prefecture of the East
The praetorian prefecture of the East or of Oriens was one of four large praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided...
and praeses
Praeses
Praeses , is a Latin word meaning "Seated in front of, i.e. at the head ", has both ancient and modern uses.-Roman imperial use:...
(provincial governor) of Osroene
Osroene
Osroene, also spelled Osrohene and Osrhoene and sometimes known by the name of its capital city, Edessa , was a historic Syriac kingdom located in Mesopotamia, which enjoyed semi-autonomy to complete independence from the years of 132 BC to AD 244.It was a Syriac-speaking kingdom.Osroene, or...
, of which Edessa was the capital. One of the Novellae Constitutiones
Novellae Constitutiones
The Novellae Constitutiones , or Justinian's Novels, are one of the four major units of Roman law created by Roman Emperor Justinian I in the course of his long reign . The other three pieces are: the Code, the Digest, and the Institutes. Together, the four parts are known as the Corpus Juris...
("New Constitutions") mentions the topoteretes of Osroene and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (Roman province)
Mesopotamia was the name of two distinct Roman provinces, the one a short-lived creation of the Roman Emperor Trajan in 116–117 and the other established by Emperor Septimius Severus in ca. 198, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century....
. This was the post Anatolius held and the reference might be to Anatolius himself.
Arrest
In 578, the Byzantine authorities received reports on an impending revolt of crypto-pagansCrypto-Paganism
Crypto-Pagans are pagan and neoplatonic groups that have had to pretend to be members of a mandated or mainstream religion while secretly practicing their true religion.-Neopaganism:...
in Baalbek
Baalbek
Baalbek is a town in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon, altitude , situated east of the Litani River. It is famous for its exquisitely detailed yet monumentally scaled temple ruins of the Roman period, when Baalbek, then known as Heliopolis, was one of the largest sanctuaries in the Empire...
. Theophilus, an official who had previously faced revolts by Jews and Samaritans
Samaritan Revolts
The Samaritan Revolts were a series of insurrections during the 5th and 6th centuries in Palaestina Prima province, launched by the Samaritans against the Christian East Roman/Byzantine Empire...
, was tasked with locating said crypto-pagans. Suspects were arrested and interrogated under torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
, forced to name other "pagans". Soon Theophilus had lists of names, including prominent citizens spread throughout the eastern provinces of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
. The persecution spread to the rest of these provinces.
Theophilus was searching for Rufinus, a high priest
High priest
The term "high priest" usually refers either to an individual who holds the office of ruler-priest, or to one who is the head of a religious caste.-Ancient Egypt:...
of the pagans, who "had lately gone on a visit to Anatolius". Theophilus followed the man to Edessa. He claimed to have interrupted a sacrifice to Zeus
Zeus
In the ancient Greek religion, Zeus was the "Father of Gods and men" who ruled the Olympians of Mount Olympus as a father ruled the family. He was the god of sky and thunder in Greek mythology. His Roman counterpart is Jupiter and his Etruscan counterpart is Tinia.Zeus was the child of Cronus...
/Jupiter
Jupiter (mythology)
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Jupiter or Jove is the king of the gods, and the god of the sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon....
taking place within the city. John of Ephesus relates, "On their arrival they [Theophilus and his escort] learned that he [Rufinus] was dwelling there, and having waited for night, upon surrounding the house in order to arrest him, they found a feast of Zeus actually being celebrated by the heathens, and people assembled together with Rufinus to offer sacrifices. On becoming aware, however, that they were endeavouring to surround the house, those present took the alarm, and fled. But Rufinus knowing well that he had no place of refuge to which he could escape, drew his knife, and smote it into his heart, and having given himself also a wound in the abdomen, fell down dead."
Theophilus captured "a gouty old man, too feeble to flee, and an old woman". The two were interrogated under threat of death, forced to declare "the names of all who had taken part in these proceedings". They supposedly named several people, but only Anatolius is named in primary sources. Anatolius reportedly tried to create an alibi
Alibi
Alibi is a 1929 American crime film directed by Roland West. The screenplay was written by West and C. Gardner Sullivan, who adapted the 1927 Broadway stage play, Nightstick, written by Elaine Sterne Carrington, J.C...
for himself. He hastily dressed himself in the typical clothes of a traveller (travelling coat, leather leggings
Leggings
Leggings are a type of fitted clothing covering the legs, which can be worn by both men and women.Originally leggings were two separate garments, one for each leg....
and walking shoes) and then made a late-night visit to the residence of the Bishop of Edessa, pretending to have just returned from a journey. He hoped that the Bishop would testify about his supposed journey.
Anatolius' trick failed. He was soon arrested and forced to give surety
Surety
A surety or guarantee, in finance, is a promise by one party to assume responsibility for the debt obligation of a borrower if that borrower defaults...
to appear in Antioch for his trial. John of Ephesus explains: "For just as he [Anatolius] left the bishop's presence, those who had been sent to arrest him met him, and laid hands upon him, and said, 'Come peaceably with us, my lord governor: we are greatly in need of your highness: give orders for bailsmen to be put in for you at a talent apiece, that within ten days you appear at Antioch.' But he in answer began to explain to them, and say, ' I have but just entered the city from a journey, as the bishop will bear testimony.' But they replied, ' It is no use playing us tricks, my lord governor. This very night you have been with Rufinus and the rest of your people, and have offered sacrifice to Zeus; and the witnesses are all ready to prove it.' And when upon this he threatened them with his power, and said, 'You are putting a stop to all matters of state;' they replied, 'Threaten us not, my lord governor: as your highness is a living man, you will not get away from hence without giving us bail.' And now finding that he had no choice, nor probability of escape, he consented, and gave bail, and set out immediately with them and their other prisoners for Antioch."
Trial
Anatolius originally faced trial at Antioch, alongside his notariusNotarius
A notarius is a public secretary who is appointed by competent authority to draw up official or authentic documents . In the Roman Catholic Church there have been apostolic notaries and even episcopal notaries...
(secretary) Theodore. He protested his innocence and tried to prove being a genuine Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
. He led people into his private residence, where they were able to examine an icon
Icon
An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and in certain Eastern Catholic churches...
of Jesus Christ. At the back of the icon however they reportedly found "skilfully introduced ... a likeness of Apollo
Apollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
, so carefully done as not to be visible without looking closely at it. Horrified at the sight, the archers threw him [Anatolius] on the ground, and kicked him, and dragged him by the hair to the Praetorium
Praetorium
- Etemology :The praetorium, also spelled prœtorium or pretorium, was originally used to identify the general’s tent within a Roman Castra, Castellum, or encampment. The word originates from the name of the chief Roman magistrate, known as Praetor...
, where they declared all that had happened". He was forced to make a full confession.
Meanwhile, Theodore was subjected to torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
and flagellation
Flagellation
Flagellation or flogging is the act of methodically beating or whipping the human body. Specialised implements for it include rods, switches, the cat o' nine tails and the sjambok...
. His confession did not only implicate himself and Anatolius: he also accused Gregory of Antioch and Eulogius of Alexandria (later a patriarch, term 581–607) of participating in a human sacrifice
Human sacrifice
Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more human beings as part of a religious ritual . Its typology closely parallels the various practices of ritual slaughter of animals and of religious sacrifice in general. Human sacrifice has been practised in various cultures throughout history...
. John of Ephesus narrates: "That both Gregory, the patriarch of Antioch, and Eulogius, who was subsequently patriarch of Alexandria, had been present with them at the sacrifice of a boy, held by night at Daphne". Daphne was a suburb of Antioch
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the...
. Theodore died in prison. Contemporary rumour had it either "that really he was murdered, in order that his deposition might be got out of the way; but to the truth of this we will not bear testimony" or "as many thought, he killed himself, because the sentence of death was certain to be pronounced against him."
Anatolius was transported to Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
to face a new trial, now judged by a special assembly. John of Ephesus reports that all accused crypto-pagans arriving at Constantinople were placed on trial by "a court ...consisting of magistrates
Roman Magistrates
The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate. His power, in practice, was absolute. He was the chief priest, lawgiver, judge, and the sole commander of the army...
and jurist
Jurist
A jurist or jurisconsult is a professional who studies, develops, applies, or otherwise deals with the law. The term is widely used in American English, but in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth countries it has only historical and specialist usage...
s, to try them, and examine into the truth of the matter, upon oath that they would show no partiality, nor respect of persons." The trials took place within the Placidia Palace
Placidia Palace
The Placidia Palace was the official residence of the papal apocrisiarius , and the intermittent home of the Pope himself when in residence at Constantinople...
and proceedings were kept secret. John notes: "Although a few facts transpired, it was in spite of their own efforts to conceal them. And after some time, men generally were convinced that bribery
Bribery
Bribery, a form of corruption, is an act implying money or gift giving that alters the behavior of the recipient. Bribery constitutes a crime and is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official or...
was permitted, and prevailed over the truth".
The population of Constantinople started rioting, demanding no mercy for the prisoners. Among their slogans was: "Out with the bones of the heathens!" Tiberius II Constantine
Tiberius II Constantine
Tiberius II Constantine was Byzantine Emperor from 574 to 582.During his reign, Tiberius II Constantine gave away 7,200 pounds of gold each year for four years....
reacted by adding to the members of the court every member of the Senate
Byzantine Senate
The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. It survived for centuries but was increasingly irrelevant until its eventual disappearance in the 13th century....
available, presumably to make decisions more respected. He [Tiberius] "gave orders to all magistrates and senators to assemble together, in company with all men of patrician rank, and the subconsuls
Anthypatos
Anthypatos is the translation in Greek of the Latin proconsul. In the Greek-speaking East, it was used to denote this office in Roman and early Byzantine times, surviving as an administrative office until the 9th century...
, and those who bear the title of 'illustrious
Vir illustris
The title vir illustris is used as a formal indication of standing in late antiquity to describe the highest ranks within the senates of Rome and Constantinople...
', and the subprefects of the city, and all members of the senate. The place appointed for their meeting was the prefect's court, and all the depositions relating to the heathen were to be read before them, both of cases in the east and in the west; and whosoever was not present he gave orders that his girdle should be cut, and he should lose his office. In obedience to so strict a commandment they all met, and sat the whole day from morning till night fasting, and anxious". Anatolius' fate was left at the hands of this extended court, which would suggest that Anatolius was himself a member of the Senate, perhaps even a vir illustris
Vir illustris
The title vir illustris is used as a formal indication of standing in late antiquity to describe the highest ranks within the senates of Rome and Constantinople...
("illustrious man", high-ranking senator).
Execution
The new court's "first sentence was to condemn to death him of whom we have spoken before, Anatolius". He was first tortured. Evagrius claims that Anatolius attempted to again implicate Gregory of Antioch but failed: "on being subjected to the extreme of torture, [Anatolius] was unable to allege anything against the bishop".Anatolius was then thrown to the "wild beasts" of the Hippodrome of Constantinople
Hippodrome of Constantinople
The Hippodrome of Constantinople was a circus that was the sporting and social centre of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. Today it is a square named Sultanahmet Meydanı in the Turkish city of Istanbul, with only a few fragments of the original structure surviving...
. They wounded him but were not allowed to kill him. His jailers had him "torn from their claws" and then crucified
Crucifixion
Crucifixion is an ancient method of painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead...
. Evagrius argues that Anatolius suffered impalement
Impalement
Impalement is the traumatic penetration of an organism by an elongated foreign object such as a stake, pole, or spear, and this usually implies complete perforation of the central mass of the impaled body...
, then details the fate of his corpse. "Anatolius himself, after being first exposed to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre and mangled by them, was then impaled, without terminating even then his punishment in this world; for the wolves
Gray Wolf
The gray wolf , also known as the wolf, is the largest extant wild member of the Canidae family...
, tearing down his polluted body, divided it as a feast among themselves; a circumstance never before noticed."
John mentions that an unnamed son of Theodore was seized by the crowds and burned alive. He might be part of the unnamed associates of Anatolius mentioned by Evagrius: "He [Anatolius] and his associates were the cause of still greater disturbances and a general rising of the populace: for, when some of the party had received sentence of banishment instead of death, the populace, inflamed with a sort of divine zeal, caused a general commotion, in their fury and indignation, and having seized the persons condemned to banishment and put them into a skiff, they committed them alive to the flames; such being the people's verdict."
Evagrius alludes to an unnamed "curator of the palace" who had protected Anatolius for a while, but changed his mind. This could be a curator domus divinae ("curator of the divine domains", administrator of the private property of the imperial family). Whitby has suggested that the man could be Magnus, known to have been curator of the palace of Hormisdas during the reign of Tiberius II Constantine. Magnus was from Syria, held an important financial office and could have had "close contacts with Anatolius".
Sources and reliability
Michael Whitby examines the reliability of the primary sources. He points that Evagrius Scholasticus could have been present at Antioch and a first-hand witness to the events. He might also have access to the accounts of other witnesses and contemporaries, but notes that Evagrius' account is sketchy at best on the early stages of the scandal. He focuses more on the implication of Gregory of Antioch and the threat to the Patriarch. His account of events contains many "divine signs". On the other hand, John of Ephesus' version offers a wealth of "circumstantial information" and even includes mention of the official records. He views events from a MonophysiteMonophysitism
Monophysitism , or Monophysiticism, is the Christological position that Jesus Christ has only one nature, his humanity being absorbed by his Deity...
perspective but seems more credible in this case.
Whitby also points out that Evagrius' account is lacking in context. John of Ephesus places Anatolius' arrest and trial among the events of the wider religious persecution. Whitby notes that the persecution started in Baalbek, which he describes as "a notoriously pagan city". He deduces that Christians had found it impossible to break the "monopoly of power", concentrated at the hands of the wealthy pagans of the city. This might have instigated the investigation of Theophilus and the entire affair. He also points to the house where Rufinus resided at Edessa, which Whitby deduces to have been the residence of Anatolius, making it hard for the governor to deny his connection to the high priest.
Whitby notes that Evagrius and John both feature an account of an icon helping condemn Anatolius, but that their accounts are completely different. Evagrius account offers the following miracle
Miracle
A miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...
: "Anatolius rushed to a certain image of the Mother of God
Theotokos
Theotokos is the Greek title of Mary, the mother of Jesus used especially in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic Churches. Its literal English translations include God-bearer and the one who gives birth to God. Less literal translations include Mother of God...
, which was suspended by a cord in the prison, and folding his hands behind his back, announced himself as a suppliant: but she, in detestation and conviction of the guilty and God-hated man, turned herself quite round, presenting a prodigy awful and worthy of perpetual remembrance; which, having been witnessed by all the prisoners as well as by those who had the charge of Anatolius and his associates, was thus published to the world".
Implications concerning Gregory
Returning to Evagrius' account, Whitby notes the role of Gregory in the events. Evagrius has claimed in previous passages that Gregory was popular and respected in Antioch, but then Evagrius himself records riots in Antioch aimed at the Patriarch, predating the scandal with Anatolius. Once Gregory was implicated in the alleged human sacrifice, "great attacks were made on him by the people". Evagrius was obviously sympathetic to Gregory, but the evidence points to Gregory facing a general hostility within his seat of power. His association with Anatolius was arguably unfortunate for both of them.Concerning the alleged human sacrifice, Whitby notes that John has the sacrifice immediately followed by "a terrible quaking". This seems a likely reference to the earthquake which affected Antioch in 577. The event is otherwise only recorded by Evagrius. Evagrius records: "In the third year of the administration of the empire by Tiberius [577], a violent earthquake befell Theopolis [Antioch] and its suburb of Daphne, precisely at noon; on which occasion the whole of that suburb was laid in utter ruin by the shocks, while the public and private buildings in Theopolis, though rent to the ground, were still not entirely levelled."
Pagans in the 6th century
Concerning events at Constantinople, Whitby notes that the population had a reason to fear that the prisoners would get light sentences. Tiberius II Constantine had a reputation for "leniency in religious matters". A previous chapter of John has Tiberius even tolerating ArianismArianism
Arianism is the theological teaching attributed to Arius , a Christian presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt, concerning the relationship of the entities of the Trinity and the precise nature of the Son of God as being a subordinate entity to God the Father...
until a riot had forced him to renew persecution. Under constant threat of popular riots, the tolerant Tiberius turned into a persecutor of pagans and heretics. Whitby even makes direct allusions to the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
when describing this wave of persecution.
John Liebeschuetz sees the events as a regular "witch-hunt", where everyone is a suspect. He points out that many of the "pagans" executed were probably actual Christians. Whitby is not so certain. He points to the hagiography
Hagiography
Hagiography is the study of saints.From the Greek and , it refers literally to writings on the subject of such holy people, and specifically to the biographies of saints and ecclesiastical leaders. The term hagiology, the study of hagiography, is also current in English, though less common...
of Simeon Stylites the Younger
Simeon Stylites the Younger
Saint Simeon Stylites the Younger [also known as 'St. Simeon of the Admirable Mountain'] is a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Catholic Churches of Eastern and Latin Rites...
, a contemporary of Anatolius, which alludes to the existence of prominent pagans in Antioch and its vicinity, with some of them even consulting the saint. Besides practicing pagans, this might indicate that there were people in the area "whose religious position was still ambivalent".
Liebeschuetz and other modern historians point to the involvement of the Monophysites
Monophysitism
Monophysitism , or Monophysiticism, is the Christological position that Jesus Christ has only one nature, his humanity being absorbed by his Deity...
in these events. The last reign favorable to them was that of Anastasius I
Anastasius I (emperor)
Anastasius I was Byzantine Emperor from 491 to 518. During his reign the Roman eastern frontier underwent extensive re-fortification, including the construction of Dara, a stronghold intended to counter the Persian fortress of Nisibis....
(r. 491–518). Since 518, they were seen as heretics, with "their churches and monasteries ... liable to be confiscated, and their bishops to be exiled and imprisoned". Yet, they participated enthusiastically in the search for crypto-pagans. They were probably seeing it as an opportunity to discredit their enemies, since many of the "suspects" happened to be prominent Chalcedonians.
Antigone Samellas points out the term used by Evagrius for the corpse of Anatolius: "polluted". That is the Greek term "miaron", deriving from miasma
Miasma theory of disease
The miasma theory held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia or the Black Death were caused by a miasma , a noxious form of "bad air"....
. This would suggest that Christians considered impure "the bodies of pagans who had been making sacrifices to the gods". She notes an earlier passage of Basil of Caesarea
Basil of Caesarea
Basil of Caesarea, also called Saint Basil the Great, was the bishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia, Asia Minor . He was an influential 4th century Christian theologian...
which describes the relics of Jewish martyrs as abominable. She deduces that this was the general attitude against "everything that one's religious opponents regarded as sacred".