Ancient Chinese urban planning
Encyclopedia
Ancient Chinese urban planning is the application of the traditional principles of Chinese architecture to urban design. These traditions can be summarized as: fengshui geomancy
and astronomy
; the well-field system; gaitian cosmology
; qi as a medium of energy connecting man, earth, and heaven; political power shared between a military aristocracy and educated advisers; the holy place bo; a three-tiered economic system under absolute state control; early writing; and the walled yet portable capital city as a diagram of political power.
originated during the urbanization of the Yellow River valley in the Neolithic
Age. The process in China
, as elsewhere in the world, is related to the process of centralizing power in a political state
. Although several cultures formed competing states, the direct ancestor of the Chinese state was Longshan
culture. Therefore, the earliest Chinese urban planning was a synthesis of Longshan traditional cosmology
, geomancy
, astrology
, and numerology
. This synthesis generated a diagram of the cosmos, which placed man, state, nature, and, heaven in harmony. The city was planned in the context of this cosmic diagram to maintain harmony and balance, principles important in Chinese law.
(4,800-3,750 BC) on the zhongyuan plain of the Yellow River. Banpo grew from a typical Yangshao village in both size and organization until the construction of the Great Hall ca. 4000 BCE. Like Eridu
in Mesopotamia
, Banpo in East Asia
was the first instance of specialized architecture, something other than a house. Physically, Banpo was composed of 200 round pit houses and the Great Hall across 5 hectares and surrounded by a ditch. These pit houses were sited for solar gain
by aligning the door to the Yingshi asterism
just after the winter solstice
. Already, at this early stage the principle of south-facing entry was firmly established.
As in other Neolithic communities, life at Banpo was synchronized to the agricultural year, which was timed by the movement of the Big Dipper
, which functioned as a celestial clock. The Book of Odes describes this annual cycle. Beginning in spring, adolescents swam through the flood waters at the triangular confluence of two rivers. They emerged shivering, and in this state they were infused with the souls of ancestors buried in the earth who had reemerged at the springs of the Yellow River. In this energized state they procreated in a location deemed to possess magical earth energy. These locations were unsuitable for agriculture, usually a hill, and therefore were uncleared primeval forests. Consecrated procreation was essential to maintaining the cycle of life. When the flood waters receded, the triangle was divided into fields between the families. In autumn there was a large festival at the completion of the harvest. In winter, the men left their homes and retired to the Great Hall, where they were led by the village elders in drinking and singing to repel the cold.
The needs and beliefs of Banpo society created the prototype Chinese urban form. The springtime sacred procreation sites became, in time, the Holy Place called bo . Moreover, the connection between ancestors, earth, and fertility developed into a theory of qi
energy and fengshui geomancy. The Book of Burial elaborates this theory. Man is considered concentrated Qi, when his bones are returned to the earth they become re-energized by Qi. The living descendants are affected by the Qi generated from the bones of their ancestors, "as a lute string will pick of the vibration of another lute string near it." In this theory, the world was an active matrix of Qi into which graves, houses, and cities must be carefully inserted by fengshui principals to maintain harmony. The shape of this world was described by a parallel cosmology of a round heaven revolving around a square earth. This gaitian cosmology originated from neolithic astronomy
. This cosmic diagram is depicted on jade bi
and cong
used to talk to sky and earth spirits, respectively. In particular, Yangshao pottery decorated with Big Dipper inscribed on a nine-in-one square (earth) surrounded by a circle (heaven) already depicts a cosmic diagram of earth divided into nine parts. This nine-in-square, in time, became basis of the well-field system
, which was the basic geometric and legal module of urban-regional planning. Likewise, the Great Hall became the prototype of later palaces and imperial cities.
Longshan Culture
(3000-2000 BC)arrived from the east one thousand years after Banpo in the same area. This arrival is mythologized by the story of the Yellow Emperor
. A man of vigorus energy who dispensed law, standardized measures, invented writing, and conquered. The Longshan tribes formed a superstratum over Yangshao culture. As they fused ideologically and socially, all the elements of a new state
and civilization
appeared. Culturally, protowriting
in the form of the Longshan Script, was used on oracle bones. Politically, a Longshan warlord ruled with the help of an Yangshao adviser. Both the use of oracle bones, and the rule of a king with adviser had continuity into the Shang Dynasty
. The first capital was Chengziya in 2500 BCE followed by Taosi
in 2300 BCE and finally by Erlitou in 2000 BC. Longshan Culture developed directly into the Xia and Shang Dynasties.
The hierarchical and militaristic aspects of Longshan culture are evident in their cities. Their shape is a walled square filled with square houses. The transition from round to square homes is always accompanied by centralizing power in history. The square shaped city, itself a product of centralized power, historically arises a from a military encampment. It is the city as a diagram of political power. The new order made its mark on the Urban-Regional context. Three levels of settlement emerged in the early Longshan state, village called Jū (0-1 ha), city Yi (1-5 ha), and capital called Dū (<5 ha). These three tiers of settlements are the physical realization of central place theory
. The original Yangshao Jū villages formed a matrix of production that channeled goods upward to larger Longshan Yi and ultimately to the Dū. Political power was therefore defined as the amount of the highly productive matrix of agriculture and village under control. The greater the area, the more wealth passed upwards to the capital. Other cites were economically unnecessary as there was neither long distance trade nor markets. Currently, the division of urban and rural areas is still poorly defined in China.
The final Longshan capital, Erlitou is the physical manifestation of massive social change in China c 2000 BC. Erlitou began in the Neolithic as a Yangshao bo. Later additions of alters and temples. It was a sacred city, even when absorbed by the Longshan tribes, and thus was never walled. Erlitou was the site of transition into the Bronze Age
. The legendary Xia Dynasty
may have been the ruling class of Erlitou.
Erlitou is sited at the confluence of the Lou and Yi rivers, a sacred place known as the Waste of Xia. Geographically, the Waste of Xia marked the center of the nine-in-one square earth. During the transitional Erlitou Culture
, diverse Neolithic traditions were woven into one coherent harmonious philosophical and political system. In this system earth was the mirror of heaven ruled by the Jade Emperor
. Residing in Polaris
, he sent the heavenly breath of Qi down to earth through meridians. The Qi concentrated in mountains and rivers, by informed site planning, a building and even a city could fit into this energized matrix. Politically, Qi flowed from heaven through earth into and the through the divine emperor through his city out of the gates into his realm. The emperor kept heaven and earth in harmonious balance through his absolute power. An adviser class interpreted the omens of heaven to inform his actions. Geographically, the state was square shaped and centered on the ruler. As described in the Book of Documents, China is a square of 45,000 li with five nested squares spaced at 500 li to create five zones. Beginning at the center, Royal Domain (500 x 500 li), Noble Domain, Domain of Peace-Securing, Domain of Restraint, and Wild Domain. Outside the fifth zone, the barbarian tribes lived. The Xia and Early Shang place was a miniature diagram of this cosmos. It had a traditional Longshan square shape oriented strictly north-south since Qi flows that direction (Polaris in the north). This square was further subdivided into nine parts based on the now ancient nine-in-one square, which had become a prosperity symbol. A rectalinear walled settlement for servants and craftsmen formed around this palace.
The nine-in-one square was transformed into the Holy Field symbol
, sometime during the Shang Dynasty. In a myth the founder of the Xia Dynasty, Yu the Great
, received the Holy Field symbol from a magical turtle sent by heaven. Its importance cannot be underestimated as it is the geometric basis of ancient Chinese architecture, urban planning, and geography. By the time of the Xia Dynasty, the nine-in-one square territory of earth was divided into nine state
s (九州; Jiǔzhōu).
Although an important stage in urbanization, Erlitou was not a true city. It was a palace complex surrounded by an over-sized Neolithic village. During the Bronze Age, expensive bronze artifacts belonged exclusively to the aristocracy, the peasants still lived at a neolithic level of development. There was a succession of these palatial du capitals during the Xia and into the Early Shang Dynasties
. Each successive capital had a higher level of development until the Late Shang capital Yin. Yin was the first true city and represented the culmination of Longshan Culture. The design of the palace at Yin was copied by the Zhou Dynasty
to create the palace at Zhouyuan, which consolidated all the addition and experimentation of Yin over centuries. Although a copy, Zhouyuan was innovative for its high level of planning. This feature of Zhou urbanism would later be implemented at a national scale. Politically, the Zhou tribe, a vassal of the Shang dynasty, moved through a series of three capitals, Fan, Bo, and Shen, before settling at their ancestral capital, Zhouyuan on the Weishui River.
, acted quickly to restore the balance by resettling the Shang aristocracy, scholars, and craftsmen in the Holy Waste of Xia. He designed a new holy city, Chengzhou, according to strict cosmological principals to house them. Finally, he moved the 9 ding to be stored there. It was believed by these actions harmony would be restored and heaven would grant the Zhou the right to rule China. This work although based on centuries of design precedent was a radial synthsis and the first truly planned city in China. With Chengzhou, the Duke of Zhou established the classical standard of urban planning. Most new cities were modeled after its design. Ultimately, its forms were codified in the Rites of Zhou
.
of M = 15. Symbolic meaning based on homophony of the integer names had existed since the Xia Dynasty; however, this symbolism became fully expanded to Numerology
during the Zhou Dynasty. The Holy Field was used to conceptualize many systems such as astronomy, geography, and politics. The Center is the subject of the system, the inner eight squares represents the means through which the subject acts, he twelve outer edges are amplifications of their qualities. The four squares of even integers at the corners are yin
and the five axial squares of odd integers are yang
. This was considered the correct balance of yin and yang to keep a harmonious flow of Qi.
The ideal city was therefore a diagram of this multipurpose cosmological symbol drawn upon the landscape. The Rites of Zhou
codified how the Holy Field would be transformed into a city. Moreover, it dictated planning from a residential to regional scale.
A temple of ancestors was placed in square 7, a temple of agriculture in square 3, and an audience hall in square 1. The market was not considered of high importance and placed in square 9 to the north of the palace.The palace was located in square 5 of the Holy Field. The palace itself was a copy of the one at Zhouyuan
. Square 5 was enclosed by fortifications to form the Inner City (Chinese:城 ; Pinyin: Chéng). The edge of the Holy Field was enclosed in a second ring of fortifications and referred to as the Outer City (Chinese:郭; Pinyin: Guó). The fortifications were specified as 20 m wide and 15 m high. The wall of the Outer City was pierced by 12 gates aligned with 3 major North-South avenues and 3 major East-West avenues. Parallel with these avenues, were 6 minor avenues for a total of 9 avenues running North-South and 9 avenues running East-West. These 18 avenues were specified as the width of nine chariots (Chinese
: 24 bu; SI
: 30 m), and divided the city into wards (Chinese: 坊; Pinyin: fāng) of 1x1 li. Conceptually each ward was an individual village, thus the capital was 81 villages within a wall. Inside each ward individual land was parceled out in modules of 8 mu (66.5x66.5 m, 4,553.47 m2). The 8 mu standard plat
could accommodate one aristocratic residence or be subdivided into as many as six smaller residential plats. The flexibility of this simple system allowed great diversity within each ward, but great homogeny at the city scale.
The Zhou classical standard extended the concept of modular planning used in the Capital to the regional planning scale. The city was part of a modular regional system of urban economics. It mirrored the hierarchy of the state in a smaller scale. Each module, whether urban or rural, in the hierarchy therefore had the same population base and political power. The economic rank of a city determined its size, as measured in li (Chinese: 里; Pinyin:lǐ) which was considered to be the length of a village as set by the Yellow Emperor. The value of the li at the time of Chengzhou was 358.2 m. At the smallest scale even the plats were built out into standardized Chinese house
s as prescribed in the Rites of Zhou.
Zhou Urban Hierarchy:
The first city planned and built according to the Zhou classical standard, Chengzhou (1036 BCE), illustrates the ideal city. First a suitable site was determined with correct Qi resources, a hill in the north (Mt. Mang) and river in the south (Luo river). Next, the center was determined by a compass, and a furrow was plowed to mark the edge of the wall. Then the a central place was built in square 5, finally the land was parceled out. Chengzhou, although the official capital in name and a holy city was never the political capital of the Western Zhou dynasty. Rather, a smaller version of Chengzhou called Wangcheng was built nearby in 1021 BCE. Because of their proximity both cities are erroneously called Luoyang
in history.
the total control of the Zhou over their empire dissolved into multiple states each one; however, modeled the precedent of Chengzhou to build their capitals. These period called the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
, was a time of great urbanization in China. Chengzhou itself finally became the political capital of the Eastern Zhou in 510 BCE (its fortification tripled in width). The cites lost the strict rank to size hierarchy imposed by imperial authority and grew according to their economic and military functions. This period although politically chaotic was a great period of urbanization, and experimentation of architecture and urban planning.
Along with the growth of cites there was a parallel growth of urban society; independent merchants, artisans, scholars, and the like all emerged a new social class at this time. In addition to the growth in the Yellow River Valley, the Yangtze River Valley began to urbanize under the cultural model of the Zhou Dynasty. The cities of states such as Wu
, Yue
, Chu
, and Shu
had regional variations on the Zhou classical standard. By the time of the Qin Dynasty conquest there was a great diversity of wealthy cites across China excluding the Lingnan
region.
The city marketplace with tower was a new feature of this era that marked the beginning of an integrated economic function of cites. The architecture of the warring states featured high walls, large gates, and towers. The development of the tower as a symbol of power and social order especially defined this era. The tower usually projected outward at the top to create an image of strength and intimidation. The new marketplace was always overlooked by a tower.
unification of China. Also under the Qin Dynasty Chengzhou lost its status as a holy city and was renamed Luoyang in 236 BCE. The Qin Dynasty destroyed most of the Eastern Zhou urbanization to concentrated its collected wealth at the capital Xianyang
. Colonization of the Lingnan
, and Ordos
regions began at this time, using the a modified from the Zhou classical standard of urban design. The Qin created a national system of military garrisons on a three-tier administrative hierarchy as a practical measure to control the population according to strict legalist principles. Ironically because legalism
was so repressive the Qin lost power in a revolt and were replaced by the Han Dynasty, who continued the Qin system of imperial administration under a more a balanced confucian doctrine.
At its inception the Han Dynasty was immediately faced with the task of rebuilding the urban infrastructure which had been destroyed by Qin Dynasty purges and the war of succession after its downfall. The Han rebuilt China according to a national master plan from the Zhou Dynasty which had never been realized. To this end Han Dynasty scholars collected the scraps of knowledge that survived the Qin Dynasty
purge to write the Book of Diverse Crafts
, which was the basis of urban planning until the modern era. Thus, the rebuilt cities, new cites, and colonial cities were uniform to this imperial standard, and Chinese urban society flourished once again.
. This economic structure was later modified by commercial towns in the Middle Ages.
A country was controlled by a magistrate in a walled complex in the walled county center. He was responsible for tax collection, justice, postal service, police, granaries, salt stores, social welfare, education, and religious ceremony. The magistrate's complex (yamen) was sited at the center of this the city at the point where the main east-west street crossed the main north-south street. The main entrance was in the south and axially aligned along the main north south street connecting to the south gate of the walls. Two arches on the east west street marked the entry forming a small plaza. The south side of the plaza was a dragon wall and the north was the main gate of the compound. This gate lead to a courtyard passing through this courtyard to another gate, called the gate of righteousness, lead to the main courtyard of the complex. The north side of this courtyard was the central hall where the magistrate worked the two side halls contained the six offices. behind the central hall was another courtyard and hall where the magistrate met with higher ranking officials. The three courtyard compound formed the center of the complex to the east west of it were other halls, offices, granaries, stables, libraries, official residences, and prisons.
As the empire was divided into counties prefectures and provinces
Geomancy
Geomancy is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand...
and astronomy
Astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
; the well-field system; gaitian cosmology
Cosmology
Cosmology is the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. Cosmologists seek to understand the origin, evolution, structure, and ultimate fate of the Universe at large, as well as the natural laws that keep it in order...
; qi as a medium of energy connecting man, earth, and heaven; political power shared between a military aristocracy and educated advisers; the holy place bo; a three-tiered economic system under absolute state control; early writing; and the walled yet portable capital city as a diagram of political power.
Early development
Urban planningUrban planning
Urban planning incorporates areas such as economics, design, ecology, sociology, geography, law, political science, and statistics to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities....
originated during the urbanization of the Yellow River valley in the Neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
Age. The process in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, as elsewhere in the world, is related to the process of centralizing power in a political state
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
. Although several cultures formed competing states, the direct ancestor of the Chinese state was Longshan
Longshan
Longshan may refer to the following in mainland China or Taiwan:*Longshan culture , late Neolithic culture, centred on the central and lower reaches of the Yellow River*Longshan County , of Xiangxi, Hunan*Longshan District , Liaoyuan, Jilin...
culture. Therefore, the earliest Chinese urban planning was a synthesis of Longshan traditional cosmology
Cosmology
Cosmology is the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. Cosmologists seek to understand the origin, evolution, structure, and ultimate fate of the Universe at large, as well as the natural laws that keep it in order...
, geomancy
Geomancy
Geomancy is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand...
, astrology
Astrology
Astrology consists of a number of belief systems which hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events in the human world...
, and numerology
Numerology
Numerology is any study of the purported mystical relationship between a count or measurement and life. It has many systems and traditions and beliefs...
. This synthesis generated a diagram of the cosmos, which placed man, state, nature, and, heaven in harmony. The city was planned in the context of this cosmic diagram to maintain harmony and balance, principles important in Chinese law.
Neolithic Age urbanization
Urbanization begins at BanpoBanpo
Banpo is an archaeological remain discovered in 1953 and located in the Yellow River Valley just east of Xi'an, China. It contains the remains of several well organized Neolithic settlements dating from 5600 - 6700 BP according to radiocarbon dating. It is a large area of 5-6 hectares and...
(4,800-3,750 BC) on the zhongyuan plain of the Yellow River. Banpo grew from a typical Yangshao village in both size and organization until the construction of the Great Hall ca. 4000 BCE. Like Eridu
Eridu
Eridu is an ancient Sumerian city in what is now Tell Abu Shahrain, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq. Eridu was considered the earliest city in southern Mesopotamia, and is one of the oldest cities in the world...
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
, Banpo in East Asia
East Asia
East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
was the first instance of specialized architecture, something other than a house. Physically, Banpo was composed of 200 round pit houses and the Great Hall across 5 hectares and surrounded by a ditch. These pit houses were sited for solar gain
Solar gain
Solar gain refers to the increase in temperature in a space, object or structure that results from solar radiation...
by aligning the door to the Yingshi asterism
Asterism (astronomy)
In astronomy, an asterism is a pattern of stars recognized on Earth's night sky. It may form part of an official constellation, or be composed of stars from more than one. Like constellations, asterisms are in most cases composed of stars which, while they are visible in the same general direction,...
just after the winter solstice
Winter solstice
Winter solstice may refer to:* Winter solstice, astronomical event* Winter Solstice , former band* Winter Solstice: North , seasonal songs* Winter Solstice , 2005 American film...
. Already, at this early stage the principle of south-facing entry was firmly established.
As in other Neolithic communities, life at Banpo was synchronized to the agricultural year, which was timed by the movement of the Big Dipper
Big Dipper
The Plough, also known as the Big Dipper or the Saptarishi , is an asterism of seven stars that has been recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures from time immemorial...
, which functioned as a celestial clock. The Book of Odes describes this annual cycle. Beginning in spring, adolescents swam through the flood waters at the triangular confluence of two rivers. They emerged shivering, and in this state they were infused with the souls of ancestors buried in the earth who had reemerged at the springs of the Yellow River. In this energized state they procreated in a location deemed to possess magical earth energy. These locations were unsuitable for agriculture, usually a hill, and therefore were uncleared primeval forests. Consecrated procreation was essential to maintaining the cycle of life. When the flood waters receded, the triangle was divided into fields between the families. In autumn there was a large festival at the completion of the harvest. In winter, the men left their homes and retired to the Great Hall, where they were led by the village elders in drinking and singing to repel the cold.
The needs and beliefs of Banpo society created the prototype Chinese urban form. The springtime sacred procreation sites became, in time, the Holy Place called bo . Moreover, the connection between ancestors, earth, and fertility developed into a theory of qi
Qi
In traditional Chinese culture, qì is an active principle forming part of any living thing. Qi is frequently translated as life energy, lifeforce, or energy flow. Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts...
energy and fengshui geomancy. The Book of Burial elaborates this theory. Man is considered concentrated Qi, when his bones are returned to the earth they become re-energized by Qi. The living descendants are affected by the Qi generated from the bones of their ancestors, "as a lute string will pick of the vibration of another lute string near it." In this theory, the world was an active matrix of Qi into which graves, houses, and cities must be carefully inserted by fengshui principals to maintain harmony. The shape of this world was described by a parallel cosmology of a round heaven revolving around a square earth. This gaitian cosmology originated from neolithic astronomy
Chinese astronomy
Astronomy in China has a very long history, with historians considering that "they [the Chinese] were the most persistent and accurate observers of celestial phenomena anywhere in the world before the Arabs."...
. This cosmic diagram is depicted on jade bi
Bi (jade)
The bi is a form of circular jade artifact from ancient China. The earliest bi were produced in the Neolithic period, particularly by the Liangzhu culture . Later examples date mainly from the Shang, Zhou and Han dynasties. They were also made in glass.-Description:A bi is a flat jade disc with a...
and cong
Cong (jade)
A cong is a form of jade artifact from ancient China. The earliest cong were produced by the Liangzhu culture ; later examples date mainly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties....
used to talk to sky and earth spirits, respectively. In particular, Yangshao pottery decorated with Big Dipper inscribed on a nine-in-one square (earth) surrounded by a circle (heaven) already depicts a cosmic diagram of earth divided into nine parts. This nine-in-square, in time, became basis of the well-field system
Well-field system
The well-field system was a Chinese land distribution method existing between the ninth century BCE to around the end of the Warring States Period...
, which was the basic geometric and legal module of urban-regional planning. Likewise, the Great Hall became the prototype of later palaces and imperial cities.
Longshan Culture
Longshan culture
The Longshan culture was a late Neolithic culture in China, centered on the central and lower Yellow River and dated from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC...
(3000-2000 BC)arrived from the east one thousand years after Banpo in the same area. This arrival is mythologized by the story of the Yellow Emperor
Yellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor or Huangdi1 is a legendary Chinese sovereign and culture hero, included among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he reigned from 2697–2597 or 2696–2598 BC...
. A man of vigorus energy who dispensed law, standardized measures, invented writing, and conquered. The Longshan tribes formed a superstratum over Yangshao culture. As they fused ideologically and socially, all the elements of a new state
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
and civilization
Civilization
Civilization is a sometimes controversial term that has been used in several related ways. Primarily, the term has been used to refer to the material and instrumental side of human cultures that are complex in terms of technology, science, and division of labor. Such civilizations are generally...
appeared. Culturally, protowriting
History of writing
The history of writing records the development of expressing language by letters or other marks. In the history of how systems of representation of language through graphic means have evolved in different human civilizations, more complete writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, systems of...
in the form of the Longshan Script, was used on oracle bones. Politically, a Longshan warlord ruled with the help of an Yangshao adviser. Both the use of oracle bones, and the rule of a king with adviser had continuity into the Shang Dynasty
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
. The first capital was Chengziya in 2500 BCE followed by Taosi
Taosi
Taosi is an archaeological site in Xiangfen County, Shanxi, China. Taosi is considered to be part of the late phase of the Longshan culture in southern Shanxi, also known as the Taosi phase . Taosi was surrounded by a rammed earth wall; the Huaxia settlement outgrew the perimeter of the wall. At...
in 2300 BCE and finally by Erlitou in 2000 BC. Longshan Culture developed directly into the Xia and Shang Dynasties.
The hierarchical and militaristic aspects of Longshan culture are evident in their cities. Their shape is a walled square filled with square houses. The transition from round to square homes is always accompanied by centralizing power in history. The square shaped city, itself a product of centralized power, historically arises a from a military encampment. It is the city as a diagram of political power. The new order made its mark on the Urban-Regional context. Three levels of settlement emerged in the early Longshan state, village called Jū (0-1 ha), city Yi (1-5 ha), and capital called Dū (<5 ha). These three tiers of settlements are the physical realization of central place theory
Central Place Theory
Central place theory is a geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and location of human settlements in an urban system. The theory was created by the German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to...
. The original Yangshao Jū villages formed a matrix of production that channeled goods upward to larger Longshan Yi and ultimately to the Dū. Political power was therefore defined as the amount of the highly productive matrix of agriculture and village under control. The greater the area, the more wealth passed upwards to the capital. Other cites were economically unnecessary as there was neither long distance trade nor markets. Currently, the division of urban and rural areas is still poorly defined in China.
The final Longshan capital, Erlitou is the physical manifestation of massive social change in China c 2000 BC. Erlitou began in the Neolithic as a Yangshao bo. Later additions of alters and temples. It was a sacred city, even when absorbed by the Longshan tribes, and thus was never walled. Erlitou was the site of transition into the Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
. The legendary Xia Dynasty
Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty is the first dynasty in China to be described in ancient historical chronicles such as Bamboo Annals, Classic of History and Records of the Grand Historian. The Xia Dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors gave his throne to him...
may have been the ruling class of Erlitou.
Bronze Age urbanization
Erlitou culture
The Erlitou culture is a name given by archaeologists to an Early Bronze Age urban society that existed in China from 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE. The culture was named after the site discovered at Erlitou in Yanshi, Henan Province...
, diverse Neolithic traditions were woven into one coherent harmonious philosophical and political system. In this system earth was the mirror of heaven ruled by the Jade Emperor
Jade Emperor
The Jade Emperor in Chinese folk culture, is the ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell, according to a version of Taoist mythology. He is one of the most important gods of the Chinese traditional religion pantheon...
. Residing in Polaris
Polaris
Polaris |Alpha]] Ursae Minoris, commonly North Star or Pole Star, also Lodestar) is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor. It is very close to the north celestial pole, making it the current northern pole star....
, he sent the heavenly breath of Qi down to earth through meridians. The Qi concentrated in mountains and rivers, by informed site planning, a building and even a city could fit into this energized matrix. Politically, Qi flowed from heaven through earth into and the through the divine emperor through his city out of the gates into his realm. The emperor kept heaven and earth in harmonious balance through his absolute power. An adviser class interpreted the omens of heaven to inform his actions. Geographically, the state was square shaped and centered on the ruler. As described in the Book of Documents, China is a square of 45,000 li with five nested squares spaced at 500 li to create five zones. Beginning at the center, Royal Domain (500 x 500 li), Noble Domain, Domain of Peace-Securing, Domain of Restraint, and Wild Domain. Outside the fifth zone, the barbarian tribes lived. The Xia and Early Shang place was a miniature diagram of this cosmos. It had a traditional Longshan square shape oriented strictly north-south since Qi flows that direction (Polaris in the north). This square was further subdivided into nine parts based on the now ancient nine-in-one square, which had become a prosperity symbol. A rectalinear walled settlement for servants and craftsmen formed around this palace.
The nine-in-one square was transformed into the Holy Field symbol
Lo Shu Square
Lo Shu Square |Luo ]] Book/Scroll) or the Nine Halls Diagram , is the unique normal magic square of order three. Lo Shu is part of the legacy of the most ancient Chinese mathematical and divinatory traditions, and is an important emblem in Feng Shui , the art of geomancy concerned with the...
, sometime during the Shang Dynasty. In a myth the founder of the Xia Dynasty, Yu the Great
Yu the Great
Yu the Great , was a legendary ruler of Ancient China famed for his introduction of flood control, inaugurating dynastic rule in China by founding the Xia Dynasty, and for his upright moral character....
, received the Holy Field symbol from a magical turtle sent by heaven. Its importance cannot be underestimated as it is the geometric basis of ancient Chinese architecture, urban planning, and geography. By the time of the Xia Dynasty, the nine-in-one square territory of earth was divided into nine state
Jiuzhou
The Nine Provinces is a term used in ancient Chinese histories to refer to territorial divisions during the Xia and Shang dynasties, and has now come to symbolically represent China. "Province" is the term used to translate zhou since before the Tang Dynasty , a zhou was equivalent to a province...
s (九州; Jiǔzhōu).
Although an important stage in urbanization, Erlitou was not a true city. It was a palace complex surrounded by an over-sized Neolithic village. During the Bronze Age, expensive bronze artifacts belonged exclusively to the aristocracy, the peasants still lived at a neolithic level of development. There was a succession of these palatial du capitals during the Xia and into the Early Shang Dynasties
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
. Each successive capital had a higher level of development until the Late Shang capital Yin. Yin was the first true city and represented the culmination of Longshan Culture. The design of the palace at Yin was copied by the Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
to create the palace at Zhouyuan, which consolidated all the addition and experimentation of Yin over centuries. Although a copy, Zhouyuan was innovative for its high level of planning. This feature of Zhou urbanism would later be implemented at a national scale. Politically, the Zhou tribe, a vassal of the Shang dynasty, moved through a series of three capitals, Fan, Bo, and Shen, before settling at their ancestral capital, Zhouyuan on the Weishui River.
| Capitals of China (3000-700 BCE) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| rank | pinyin | Chinese | date | size | population | location | dynasty | note |
| 1 Chengziya Archaeological Site thumb|right|250px|Roadside marker of the siteThe Chengziya Archaeological Site is the location of the first discovery of the neolithic Longshan Culture in 1928. The discovery of the Longshan Culture at Chengziya was a significant step towards understanding the origins of Chinese civilization.... |
Chéngzǐyá | 城子崖 | 2500-256 BCE | 20 ha | 10,000 | 36.7358°N 117.35415°W | PreDynastic (Longshan Longshan Longshan may refer to the following in mainland China or Taiwan:*Longshan culture , late Neolithic culture, centred on the central and lower reaches of the Yellow River*Longshan County , of Xiangxi, Hunan*Longshan District , Liaoyuan, Jilin... ) |
none |
| 2 Taosi Taosi is an archaeological site in Xiangfen County, Shanxi, China. Taosi is considered to be part of the late phase of the Longshan culture in southern Shanxi, also known as the Taosi phase . Taosi was surrounded by a rammed earth wall; the Huaxia settlement outgrew the perimeter of the wall. At... |
Táosì | 陶寺 | 2300-1900 BCE | 3 ha | ? | 35.896667°N 111.496111°E | PreDynastic (Longshan Longshan Longshan may refer to the following in mainland China or Taiwan:*Longshan culture , late Neolithic culture, centred on the central and lower reaches of the Yellow River*Longshan County , of Xiangxi, Hunan*Longshan District , Liaoyuan, Jilin... ) |
none |
| 4 Dengfeng Dengfeng is a county-level city in Zhengzhou, Henan province. In ancient times, it was known as Yangcheng .Dengfeng has an area of 1220 square kilometers and a population of 630,000.... |
Yángchéng | 陽城 | 2188-2146 BCE | 30 ha | ? | Wangchenggang site in Gaocheng township Dengfeng County, Henan 34.396488°N 113.133596°E | Xia | also: Ji |
| 5 | Dìqiū | 帝丘 | 2146 BCE | ? ha | ? | Puyang, Henan | Xia | also: Shangqiu (predynastic Shang Capital) |
| 6 | Yuán | 原 | 2079-2057 BCE | ? ha | ? | Jiyuan, Henan | Xia | none |
| 7 | Lǎoqiū | 老丘 | 2057-1900 BCE | ? ha | ? | Kaifeng, Henan | Xia | none |
| 8 | Xīhé | 西河 | 1900-1879 BCE | ? ha | ? | Tangyin, Henan | Xia | also: Bi |
| 9 | Ānyì | 安邑 | ? BCE | ? ha | ? | Xiaxian, Shanxi | Xia | also: Xiayi |
| 10 | Píngyáng | 平陽 | ? BCE | ? ha | ? | Linfe, Shanxi | Xia | none |
| 11 | Zhēnxún | 斟鄩 | 2100-1500 BCE | 300 ha | ? | Erlitou, Henan 34.701759°N 112.697079°E | Xia | also: Erlitou(Chinese:二里頭村; Pinyin: Èrlǐtóu) |
| 12 | Jìnyáng | 晉陽 | ? BCE | ? ha | ? | Taiyuan, Shanxi | Xia | none |
| 13 Yanshi Yanshi is a county-level city administered by the prefecture-level city of Luoyang in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. The ancient Erlitou culture existed in the area. Yanshi lies on the Luo River. The ruins the first Shang Dynasty capital, Xibo, are located in Shixianggou... |
Xībó | 西亳 | 1766-1552 BCE | 20 ha | ? | Shixianggou Township, Yanshi County, Luoyang Prefecture, Henan 34.716106°N 112.763191°E | Shang | also: Bo of Tang, Yanshi, Honan |
| 14 Guancheng Hui District Guancheng Hui District is a district in the central part of the city of Zhengzhou in Henan Province, People's Republic of China.The District government is located in this district. The ruins of a Shang Dynasty city, Ao are located here in Shang City Park.-External links:*... |
Áo | 隞 | 1562-1549 BCE | 400 ha | ? | Zhengzhou, Henan 34.748968°N 113.683774°E | Shang | also: Xiao |
| 15 | Xiāng | 相 | 1534-1525 BCE | ? ha | ? | Neihuang, Henan | Shang | none |
| 16 | Geng | 邢 | 1525-1506 BCE | ? ha | ? | Xingta, Hebei | Shang | also: Xiang |
| 17 | Bì | 庇 | 1510-1420 BCE | ? ha | ? | Yuncheng, Shandong | Shang | none |
| 18 | Yǎn | 奄 | 1321 BCE | ? ha | ? | Qufu, Shandong | Shang | none |
| 19 Yinxu Yinxu is the ruins of the last capital of China's Shang Dynasty. The capital served 255 years for 12 kings in 8 generations.Rediscovered in 1899, it is one of the oldest and largest archeological sites in China and is one of the historical capitals of China and a UNESCO World Heritage Site... |
Yīn | 殷 | 1299-1050 BCE | 300 ha | ? | Anyang, Shaanxi 36°07′17"N 114°19′01"E | Shang | also: Beimeng |
| 20 Qishan County Qishan County is a county of Baoji, Shaanxi, China. It was the site of Zhouyuan , the first capital of the Zhou Dynasty . Historically, the site was also known as Qiyi or Qishan . It is located in Fengchu township on the Weishui River to the south of Mt. Qi... |
Zhōuyuán | 周原 | 1158-771 BCE | ? ha | ? | Xian, Shanxi 34.497520°N 107.842903°W | Zhou | destroyed by Rong Rong Rong is an village in Øygarden, Norway, located on the island of Rongøy. It is connected to Toftøy via the Rongesundet Bridge, which crosses the sound Rongesundet.... tribe |
| 21 | Fēng-Hǎo | 豐鎬 | 1066-1036 BCE | ? ha | ? | Xian, Shanxi 34.250241°N 108.751428°E | Zhou | also: Zongzhou (宗周) |
| 22 Luoyang Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of... |
Chéngzhōu | 成周 | 1036-1021 BCE | ? ha | ? | Luoyang, Henan 34.716592°N 112.620086°E | Zhou | post-dynastyic capitals: Zhou Ge, Bo, Gu, and Yidu |
| 23 | Wángchéng | 王城 | 1021-771 BCE | ? ha | ? | Luoyang, Henan 34.667484°N 112.417719°E | Zhou | also:Luoyi (洛邑) |
Classical Standard
When the Zhou took control of China from the Shang, they upset the natural and harmonious order of the universe, there was a serious legal question over their divine right to rule. The sudden death of their leader shortly afterward seemed to confirm that they had violated the will of heaven. The acting regent, the Duke of ZhouDuke of Zhou
The Duke of Zhou played a major role in consolidating the newly-founded Zhou Dynasty . He was the brother of King Wu of Zhou, the first king of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty...
, acted quickly to restore the balance by resettling the Shang aristocracy, scholars, and craftsmen in the Holy Waste of Xia. He designed a new holy city, Chengzhou, according to strict cosmological principals to house them. Finally, he moved the 9 ding to be stored there. It was believed by these actions harmony would be restored and heaven would grant the Zhou the right to rule China. This work although based on centuries of design precedent was a radial synthsis and the first truly planned city in China. With Chengzhou, the Duke of Zhou established the classical standard of urban planning. Most new cities were modeled after its design. Ultimately, its forms were codified in the Rites of Zhou
Rites of Zhou
The Rites of Zhou , also known as Zhouguan, is one of three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism. It was later renamed Zhouli by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the Classic of History which was also known as Zhouguan.Though tradition ascribed the text of the...
.
| 4 | 9 | 2 | |
| 3 | 5 | 7 | |
| 8 | 1 | 6 | |
| original diagram | modern notation | ||
Concepts
The cities were planned by based on an enlarged Holy Field. The Holy Field symbol is essentially numerology applied to the nine-in-one square. Each square is numbered 1-9 to form a magic squareMagic square
In recreational mathematics, a magic square of order n is an arrangement of n2 numbers, usually distinct integers, in a square, such that the n numbers in all rows, all columns, and both diagonals sum to the same constant. A normal magic square contains the integers from 1 to n2...
of M = 15. Symbolic meaning based on homophony of the integer names had existed since the Xia Dynasty; however, this symbolism became fully expanded to Numerology
Numerology
Numerology is any study of the purported mystical relationship between a count or measurement and life. It has many systems and traditions and beliefs...
during the Zhou Dynasty. The Holy Field was used to conceptualize many systems such as astronomy, geography, and politics. The Center is the subject of the system, the inner eight squares represents the means through which the subject acts, he twelve outer edges are amplifications of their qualities. The four squares of even integers at the corners are yin
Yin and yang
In Asian philosophy, the concept of yin yang , which is often referred to in the West as "yin and yang", is used to describe how polar opposites or seemingly contrary forces are interconnected and interdependent in the natural world, and how they give rise to each other in turn. Opposites thus only...
and the five axial squares of odd integers are yang
Yin and yang
In Asian philosophy, the concept of yin yang , which is often referred to in the West as "yin and yang", is used to describe how polar opposites or seemingly contrary forces are interconnected and interdependent in the natural world, and how they give rise to each other in turn. Opposites thus only...
. This was considered the correct balance of yin and yang to keep a harmonious flow of Qi.
The ideal city was therefore a diagram of this multipurpose cosmological symbol drawn upon the landscape. The Rites of Zhou
Rites of Zhou
The Rites of Zhou , also known as Zhouguan, is one of three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism. It was later renamed Zhouli by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the Classic of History which was also known as Zhouguan.Though tradition ascribed the text of the...
codified how the Holy Field would be transformed into a city. Moreover, it dictated planning from a residential to regional scale.
The construction (ying) of the capital city by the artisans each side is 9 li (~3 km) in length with three gates; 9 longitudinal and 9 latitudinal lines divide the interior of the city with north to south road 9 times the carriage gauge in width (9 guiChinese units of measurementChinese units of measurement are the customary and traditional units of measure used in China. In the People's Republic of China, the units were re-standardised during the late 20th century to make them approximate SI units. Many of the units were formerly based on the number 16 instead of 10...
); the ancestral temple is on the left (of the palace city in the middle) and Sheji altars for the god of landHou TuHou Tu Hou Tu Hou Tu (also Hou T'u, now Hou Tu Nainai, in Chinese mythology, is the deity of the earth and soil, who was first worshipped by Emperor Wu of Han in 113 BC....
and the god of grainsChinese folk religionChinese folk religion or Shenism , which is a term of considerable debate, are labels used to describe the collection of ethnic religious traditions which have been a main belief system in China and among Han Chinese ethnic groups for most of the civilization's history until today...
on the right side; the palace faces the imperial court and backed against the market and the court and market are both one hundred mu (1 fú).
A temple of ancestors was placed in square 7, a temple of agriculture in square 3, and an audience hall in square 1. The market was not considered of high importance and placed in square 9 to the north of the palace.The palace was located in square 5 of the Holy Field. The palace itself was a copy of the one at Zhouyuan
Qishan
Qishan was a Manchu nobleman and high official during the late Qing Dynasty, who is known for his role during the First Opium War.-Background and early career:...
. Square 5 was enclosed by fortifications to form the Inner City (Chinese:城 ; Pinyin: Chéng). The edge of the Holy Field was enclosed in a second ring of fortifications and referred to as the Outer City (Chinese:郭; Pinyin: Guó). The fortifications were specified as 20 m wide and 15 m high. The wall of the Outer City was pierced by 12 gates aligned with 3 major North-South avenues and 3 major East-West avenues. Parallel with these avenues, were 6 minor avenues for a total of 9 avenues running North-South and 9 avenues running East-West. These 18 avenues were specified as the width of nine chariots (Chinese
Chinese units of measurement
Chinese units of measurement are the customary and traditional units of measure used in China. In the People's Republic of China, the units were re-standardised during the late 20th century to make them approximate SI units. Many of the units were formerly based on the number 16 instead of 10...
: 24 bu; SI
Si
Si, si, or SI may refer to :- Measurement, mathematics and science :* International System of Units , the modern international standard version of the metric system...
: 30 m), and divided the city into wards (Chinese: 坊; Pinyin: fāng) of 1x1 li. Conceptually each ward was an individual village, thus the capital was 81 villages within a wall. Inside each ward individual land was parceled out in modules of 8 mu (66.5x66.5 m, 4,553.47 m2). The 8 mu standard plat
Plat
A plat in the U.S. is a map, drawn to scale, showing the divisions of a piece of land. Other English-speaking countries generally call such documents a cadastral map or plan....
could accommodate one aristocratic residence or be subdivided into as many as six smaller residential plats. The flexibility of this simple system allowed great diversity within each ward, but great homogeny at the city scale.
The Zhou classical standard extended the concept of modular planning used in the Capital to the regional planning scale. The city was part of a modular regional system of urban economics. It mirrored the hierarchy of the state in a smaller scale. Each module, whether urban or rural, in the hierarchy therefore had the same population base and political power. The economic rank of a city determined its size, as measured in li (Chinese: 里; Pinyin:lǐ) which was considered to be the length of a village as set by the Yellow Emperor. The value of the li at the time of Chengzhou was 358.2 m. At the smallest scale even the plats were built out into standardized Chinese house
Siheyuan
A siheyuan is a historical type of residence that was commonly found throughout China, most famously in Beijing. In English, siheyuan are sometimes referred to as Chinese quadrangles. The name literally means a courtyard surrounded by four buildings...
s as prescribed in the Rites of Zhou.
Zhou Urban Hierarchy:
- Capital city 9x9 li 81 wards of 1 li
- Primary city 5x5 li 25 wards of 1 li
- Secondary city 4x4 li 16 wards of 1 li
- Tertiary city 3x3 li 9 wards of 1 li
The first city planned and built according to the Zhou classical standard, Chengzhou (1036 BCE), illustrates the ideal city. First a suitable site was determined with correct Qi resources, a hill in the north (Mt. Mang) and river in the south (Luo river). Next, the center was determined by a compass, and a furrow was plowed to mark the edge of the wall. Then the a central place was built in square 5, finally the land was parceled out. Chengzhou, although the official capital in name and a holy city was never the political capital of the Western Zhou dynasty. Rather, a smaller version of Chengzhou called Wangcheng was built nearby in 1021 BCE. Because of their proximity both cities are erroneously called Luoyang
Luoyang
Luoyang is a prefecture-level city in western Henan province of Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang to the south, Sanmenxia to the west, Jiyuan to the north, and Jiaozuo to the northeast.Situated on the central plain of...
in history.
Iron Age urbanization
As China moved into the Iron AgeIron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
the total control of the Zhou over their empire dissolved into multiple states each one; however, modeled the precedent of Chengzhou to build their capitals. These period called the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
, was a time of great urbanization in China. Chengzhou itself finally became the political capital of the Eastern Zhou in 510 BCE (its fortification tripled in width). The cites lost the strict rank to size hierarchy imposed by imperial authority and grew according to their economic and military functions. This period although politically chaotic was a great period of urbanization, and experimentation of architecture and urban planning.
Along with the growth of cites there was a parallel growth of urban society; independent merchants, artisans, scholars, and the like all emerged a new social class at this time. In addition to the growth in the Yellow River Valley, the Yangtze River Valley began to urbanize under the cultural model of the Zhou Dynasty. The cities of states such as Wu
Wu (state)
The State of Wu , also known as Gou Wu or Gong Wu , was one of the vassal states during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn Period. The State of Wu was located at the mouth of the Yangtze River east of the State of Chu. Considered a semi-barbarian state by ancient Chinese...
, Yue
Yue (state)
Yue was a state in China which existed during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period , in the modern province of Zhejiang. During the Spring and Autumn Period, its capital was in Guiji , near the modern city of Shaoxing...
, Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
, and Shu
Shu (state)
The State of Shu was an ancient state in what is now Sichuan, China. It was conquered by Qin in 316 BC. Shu was based on the Chengdu Plain, in the western Sichuan basin with some extension northeast to the upper Han River valley. To the east was the Ba tribal confederation. Further east down the...
had regional variations on the Zhou classical standard. By the time of the Qin Dynasty conquest there was a great diversity of wealthy cites across China excluding the Lingnan
Lingnan
Lingnan is a geographic area referring to lands in the south of China's "Five Ranges" which are Tayu, Qitian, Dupang, Mengzhu, Yuecheng. The region covers the Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan and Jiangxi provinces of modern China and northern Vietnam...
region.
The city marketplace with tower was a new feature of this era that marked the beginning of an integrated economic function of cites. The architecture of the warring states featured high walls, large gates, and towers. The development of the tower as a symbol of power and social order especially defined this era. The tower usually projected outward at the top to create an image of strength and intimidation. The new marketplace was always overlooked by a tower.
Imperial Era
The imperial era of urban planning was marked by the theory of a national master plan which extended imperial authority uniformly across China by creating a hierarchy economic and political of cites. The origin of this master plan was Han Dynasty idealized memory of Zhou Dynasty rule as a golden age, that never existed. In this national master plan the empire of China was divided into provinces based on the earlier Nine Regions of Zhou, thus maintaing the concept of China as a square Holy Field. Each province was divided prefectures and each prefecture into counties. In the center of each county was a walled city. The county edge was one day march from the walled city. In this way imperial authority was omnipresent. The network of imperial administrative cites was overlaid on an existed network of unwalled villages and townships. One county therefore ruled over several townships and many more villages. This system of taxation and law imposed on a very productive matrix of agricultural villages is a continuation of the social system created by the Longshan and Yangshao cultures. The apex of this national master plan was a new creation, the imperial capital. The imperial capital was designed as microcosm of the national master plan.Formation
Historically, the cites of the six states were combined into one unified regional system under the Qin DynastyQin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
unification of China. Also under the Qin Dynasty Chengzhou lost its status as a holy city and was renamed Luoyang in 236 BCE. The Qin Dynasty destroyed most of the Eastern Zhou urbanization to concentrated its collected wealth at the capital Xianyang
Xianyang
Xianyang is a former capital of China in Shaanxi province, on the Wei River, a few kilometers upstream from Xi'an. It has an area of...
. Colonization of the Lingnan
Lingnan
Lingnan is a geographic area referring to lands in the south of China's "Five Ranges" which are Tayu, Qitian, Dupang, Mengzhu, Yuecheng. The region covers the Guangdong, Guangxi, Hunan and Jiangxi provinces of modern China and northern Vietnam...
, and Ordos
Ordos
-Places:*Ordos Loop of the Yellow River, a region of China*Ordos Desert, in Inner Mongolia*Ordos City, city and district in Inner Mongolia*Ordos International Circuit, a race track in Ordos City.-People:...
regions began at this time, using the a modified from the Zhou classical standard of urban design. The Qin created a national system of military garrisons on a three-tier administrative hierarchy as a practical measure to control the population according to strict legalist principles. Ironically because legalism
Legalism
Legalism may refer to:In philosophy:* Legalism , Chinese political philosophy based on the idea that a highly efficient and powerful government is the key to social order....
was so repressive the Qin lost power in a revolt and were replaced by the Han Dynasty, who continued the Qin system of imperial administration under a more a balanced confucian doctrine.
At its inception the Han Dynasty was immediately faced with the task of rebuilding the urban infrastructure which had been destroyed by Qin Dynasty purges and the war of succession after its downfall. The Han rebuilt China according to a national master plan from the Zhou Dynasty which had never been realized. To this end Han Dynasty scholars collected the scraps of knowledge that survived the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
purge to write the Book of Diverse Crafts
Kaogongji
Kaogong ji or The Records of Examination of Craftsman, sometimes translated as Book of Diverse Crafts, is a classic work on science and technology in Ancient China, compiled towards the end of the Spring and Autumn Period.- External links :...
, which was the basis of urban planning until the modern era. Thus, the rebuilt cities, new cites, and colonial cities were uniform to this imperial standard, and Chinese urban society flourished once again.
The County
During the Han Dynasty official administration extended only to the county level. The county (县; xiàn) was the primary unit of government control which harnessed the productive power of the villages in its area of control to concentrate wealth. The county was thus a city-state in function with two parts; a walled settlement 1×1li at the geographical center of territory. The city had no name of its own, it was named by adding the suffix -cheng to the county's name. The territory of the county was divided into districts called townships (乡; xiāng) which were subdivided into villages (村; cūn). Villages generally had a population of 100. Currently the village level is the lowest level of administration in China. These local units, counties, were collected in groups of 8-10 called prefectures, and the prefectures were gathered in groups of 12-16 to form provinces. Economically, the county was a market for productive countryside, which consisted not only of agriculture, but also townships and villages of people to work the land and produce goods by cottage industry. The county extended military control over a segment of this productive matrix and was the entry point for goods to channel upward to the Imperial City. There were approximately 1500 counties in China properChina proper
China proper or Eighteen Provinces was a term used by Western writers on the Qing Dynasty to express a distinction between the core and frontier regions of China. There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history...
. This economic structure was later modified by commercial towns in the Middle Ages.
A country was controlled by a magistrate in a walled complex in the walled county center. He was responsible for tax collection, justice, postal service, police, granaries, salt stores, social welfare, education, and religious ceremony. The magistrate's complex (yamen) was sited at the center of this the city at the point where the main east-west street crossed the main north-south street. The main entrance was in the south and axially aligned along the main north south street connecting to the south gate of the walls. Two arches on the east west street marked the entry forming a small plaza. The south side of the plaza was a dragon wall and the north was the main gate of the compound. This gate lead to a courtyard passing through this courtyard to another gate, called the gate of righteousness, lead to the main courtyard of the complex. The north side of this courtyard was the central hall where the magistrate worked the two side halls contained the six offices. behind the central hall was another courtyard and hall where the magistrate met with higher ranking officials. The three courtyard compound formed the center of the complex to the east west of it were other halls, offices, granaries, stables, libraries, official residences, and prisons.
Imperial city
The imperial capital was meant to exist outside of any one region, even the one it was physically located in. To achieve this it used a text based plan, a cult of heaven, forced migration, and symbolization of the city as the Emperor. The evolution of the imperial capital occurred in three stages, first the super-regional capital on Xianyang, followed by the semi-regional and semi-textual capital of Changan, and finally fully realized in the fully textual capital of Luoyang. The capital city, Changan, was built to exceed in every way Xinayang. Luoyang would became the model of all future imperial cities.As the empire was divided into counties prefectures and provinces
| Summary of Regional and Urban Economic Hierarchy | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Economic Rank | | Urban | | Rural | ||||
| 1. Regional City | capital Direct-controlled municipality A direct-controlled municipality is the highest level classification for cities used by unitary state, with status equal to that of the provinces in the respective countries... |
pinyin | hanzi | Nation China proper China proper or Eighteen Provinces was a term used by Western writers on the Qing Dynasty to express a distinction between the core and frontier regions of China. There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history... |
pinyin | hanzi |
| 2. Local City | provincial capital Direct-controlled municipality A direct-controlled municipality is the highest level classification for cities used by unitary state, with status equal to that of the provinces in the respective countries... |
jīng | 京 | province Province (China) A province, in the context of Chinese government, is a translation of sheng formally provincial level divisions, which is an administrative division. Provinces, municipalities, autonomous regions, and the special administrative regions, make up the four types of province of administrative division... |
zhōu | 州 |
| 3. Central Market | city Prefecture-level city A prefectural level city , prefectural city or prefectural level municipality is an administrative division of the People's Republic of China, ranking below a province and above a county in China's administrative structure. Prefectural level cities form the second level of the administrative... |
shì | 市 | prefecture Prefecture (China) The term Prefectures, or the more formal prefectural level divisions, in the context of China, is used to refer to several unrelated political divisions in both ancient and modern China. Other than provincial level divisions, prefectural level divisions are not mentioned in the Chinese constitution... |
jùn | 郡 |
| 4. Middle Market | district District (PRC) The term district, in the context of the People's Republic of China refers to several unrelated political divisions in both ancient and modern China.... |
fāng | 坊 | county | xiān | 县 |
| 5. Standard Market | subdistrict Subdistrict (China) The subdistrict , is one of the smallest political divisions of China. It is a form of township-level division which is typically part of a larger urban area, as opposed to a discrete town surrounded by rural areas, or a rural townships known as a xiang .In general, urban areas are divided into... |
pái | 牌 | township Township (China) Township may refer to:* Townships of the People's Republic of China* Township... |
xiāng | 乡 |
| 6. Commune | neighborhood Hutong Hutongs are a type of narrow streets or alleys, most commonly associated with Beijing, China.In Beijing, hutongs are alleys formed by lines of siheyuan, traditional courtyard residences. Many neighbourhoods were formed by joining one siheyuan to another to form a hutong, and then joining one... |
hútòng | 胡同 | village | cūn | 村 |
| 7. Household | block Siheyuan A siheyuan is a historical type of residence that was commonly found throughout China, most famously in Beijing. In English, siheyuan are sometimes referred to as Chinese quadrangles. The name literally means a courtyard surrounded by four buildings... |
qū | 区 | compound Siheyuan A siheyuan is a historical type of residence that was commonly found throughout China, most famously in Beijing. In English, siheyuan are sometimes referred to as Chinese quadrangles. The name literally means a courtyard surrounded by four buildings... |
sì-hé-yuàn | 四合院 |
Later developments
After the fall of the Han Dynasty China entered a period of Decline which Ended with the Tang Dynasty. A new urban paradigm was created at this timeNeoclassical Standard
The Yuan Dynasty revived the old classical standard of the Zhou Dynasty. This standard was used until World War Two at which time modern Chinese urban planning began.See also
- Chinese city wallChinese city wallChinese city walls refer to civic defensive systems used to protect towns and cities in China in pre-modern times. The system consisted of walls, towers, and gates, which were often built to a uniform standard throughout the Empire....
- Chinese units of measurementChinese units of measurementChinese units of measurement are the customary and traditional units of measure used in China. In the People's Republic of China, the units were re-standardised during the late 20th century to make them approximate SI units. Many of the units were formerly based on the number 16 instead of 10...
- History of the administrative divisions of China
- PaifangPaifangPaifang, also called pailou, is a traditional Chinese architectural gating style as an archway.The word paifang originally was a collective term used to describe the top two levels of administrative division and subdivisions of ancient Chinese city. The largest division within a city in ancient...
- Chinese urban planningUrban planning in ChinaUrban Planning in China or The People's Republic of China is currently characterized by a top down approach, high density urban development and extensive urbanization. China's urban planning philosophies and practices have undergone multiple transitions due to governance and economic structure...
- China Historical Geographic Information SystemChina Historical Geographic Information SystemThe China Historical Geographic Information System is a Historical GIS project for creating a database of populated places and historical administrative units for the period of Chinese history between 222 BCE and 1911 CE. The project creates a dataset which track changes in placenames,...