Anglo-Egyptian War
Encyclopedia
The Anglo-Egyptian War occurred in 1882 between Egyptian and Sudanese forces under Ahmed Orabi, and the United Kingdom
.
, the Khedive
of Egypt
and Sudan
, because of grievances over disparities in pay between Egyptian and European employees, as well as other concerns. In January 1882 the British and French governments sent the "Joint Note" to the Egyptian government, declaring their recognition of the Khedive's authority. On May 20, 1882, British and French warships arrived off the coast of Alexandria. On June 11, 1882, a riot occurred in Alexandria that killed 50 Europeans, though Colonel Orabi ordered his forces to put down the riot. On July 11, 1882, British warships began their bombardment of Alexandria.
In their 1961 essay Africa and the Victorians, Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher argue that the British invasion was ordered in order to quell the perceived anarchy of the Orabi Revolt, as well to protect British control over the Suez Canal
in order to maintain its shipping route to the Indian Ocean.
A.G. Hopkins rejects Robinson and Gallagher's argument, citing original documents and second-hand sources to claim that there was no perceived danger to the Suez Canal from the Orabi movement, and that Orabi' and his forces were not chaotic "anarchists", but rather maintained law and order. He alternatively argues that British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone
's cabinet was motivated by protecting the interests of British bondholders with investments in Egypt as well as pursuit of domestic political popularity. Hopkins cites the British investments in Egypt that grew massively leading into the 1880s, partially as a result of the Khedive's debt from construction of the Suez Canal, as well as the close links that existed between the British government and the economic sector. He writes Britain's economic interests occurred simultaneously to a desire within the ruling Liberal Party for a militant foreign policy in order to gain political domestic political popularity to compete with the Conservative Party. Hopkins cites a letter from Sir Edward Malet
, the British consul general in Egypt at the time, to a member of the Gladstone Cabinet offering his congratulations on the invasion, "You have fought the battle of all Christendom and history will acknowledge it. May I also venture to say that it has given the liberal party a new lease of popularity and power."
John Galbraith and Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot make a similar argument to Hopkins, though their argument focuses on how individuals within the British government bureaucracy used their positions to make the invasion appear as a more favorable option to Gladstone's cabinet. First, they describe a plot by Edward Malet
in which he portrayed the Egyptian government as unstable to his superiors in the British cabinet in order to provoke a British military intervention, which Galbraith and al-Sayyid-Marsot write contributed to the decision to invade. They portray him as having been naive, that he believed that he could convince the British government to militarily intimidate the Egyptian government, though he never imagined a full-out invasion or occupation. They also describe the actions of Admiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of the British fleet that bombarded Alexandria, who personally hastened the start of the bombardment by exaggerating the danger posed by Orabi's forces in Alexandria to his ships in his telegrams back to the British government.
Tawfiq
, who declared Orabi a rebel and took away his political rights.
, which was authorized by Al Azhar shaykhs which stated that Tawfiq was a traitor who brought on the occupation of Egypt by a foreign nation and stated that he betrayed his religion. Orabi also ordered conscription
and he declared war on the United Kingdom.
.
In August, a British army of over 40,000, commanded by Garnet Wolseley
, invaded the Suez Canal Zone. He was authorized to destroy Orabi's forces and clear the country of all other rebels.
Order of battle
of the British Expeditionary Force
1st Division (Lt Gen GHS Willis)
1st (Guards) Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen HRH The Duke of Connaught
)
2nd Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen Gerald Graham
)
Divisional Troops
2nd Division (Lt Gen Sir Edward Hamley)
3rd (Highland) Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen Sir Edward Alison)
4th Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen Sir Evelyn Wood VC)
Divisional Troops
Indian Contingent (Maj Gen Sir Herbert Macpherson
VC)
Cavalry Division (Maj Gen Drury Curzon Drury Lowe
)
1st (Heavy) Cavalry Brigade (Brig Gen Sir Baker Creed Russell
)
2nd (Bengal) Cavalry Brigade (Brig Gen HC Wilson)
Division Troops
Army Troops
Army Train
against Wolseley. His main force dug in at Tel el-Kebir, north of the railway and the Sweetwater Canal
, both of which linked Cairo to Ismailia
on the canal. The defences were hastily prepared as there was little time to arrange them. Orabi's forces possessed 60 pieces of artillery and breech loading rifles. Wolseley made several personal reconnaissances, and determined that the Egyptians did not man outposts in front of their main defences at night, which made it possible for an attacking force to approach the defences under cover of darkness. Wolseley sent his force to approach the position by night and attacked frontally at dawn, which they did successfully, officially losing only 57 troops while killing approximately two thousand Egyptians. The Orabi forces were routed, and British cavalry pursued them and captured Cairo, which was undefended. Khedive
power was then restored as the authority of Egypt
.
until the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1922 and Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
, giving gradual control back to the government of Egypt.
Hopkins argues that the British continued its occupation of Egypt after 1882 in order to guarantee British investments, "Britain had important interests to defend in Egypt and she was prepared to withdraw only if conditions guaranteeing the security of those interests were met - and they never were." Consistent with this view, investment in Egypt increased during the British occupation, interest rates fell, and bond prices rose.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
.
Background
In 1881, an Egyptian army officer, Colonel Ahmed Orabi, initiated a coup against Tewfik PashaTewfik Pasha
HH Muhammed Tewfik Pasha ' was Khedive of Egypt and Sudan between 1879 and 1892, and the sixth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty.-Early life:...
, the Khedive
Khedive
The term Khedive is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha , the Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, and vassal of the Ottoman Empire...
of Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
and Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
, because of grievances over disparities in pay between Egyptian and European employees, as well as other concerns. In January 1882 the British and French governments sent the "Joint Note" to the Egyptian government, declaring their recognition of the Khedive's authority. On May 20, 1882, British and French warships arrived off the coast of Alexandria. On June 11, 1882, a riot occurred in Alexandria that killed 50 Europeans, though Colonel Orabi ordered his forces to put down the riot. On July 11, 1882, British warships began their bombardment of Alexandria.
Reasons for the invasion
The reasons why the British government sent a fleet of ships to the coast of Alexandria is a point of historical debate, as there is no information available that is capable of identifying a definitive cause for the invasion.In their 1961 essay Africa and the Victorians, Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher argue that the British invasion was ordered in order to quell the perceived anarchy of the Orabi Revolt, as well to protect British control over the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
in order to maintain its shipping route to the Indian Ocean.
A.G. Hopkins rejects Robinson and Gallagher's argument, citing original documents and second-hand sources to claim that there was no perceived danger to the Suez Canal from the Orabi movement, and that Orabi' and his forces were not chaotic "anarchists", but rather maintained law and order. He alternatively argues that British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone
William Ewart Gladstone
William Ewart Gladstone FRS FSS was a British Liberal statesman. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times , more than any other person. Gladstone was also Britain's oldest Prime Minister, 84 years old when he resigned for the last time...
's cabinet was motivated by protecting the interests of British bondholders with investments in Egypt as well as pursuit of domestic political popularity. Hopkins cites the British investments in Egypt that grew massively leading into the 1880s, partially as a result of the Khedive's debt from construction of the Suez Canal, as well as the close links that existed between the British government and the economic sector. He writes Britain's economic interests occurred simultaneously to a desire within the ruling Liberal Party for a militant foreign policy in order to gain political domestic political popularity to compete with the Conservative Party. Hopkins cites a letter from Sir Edward Malet
Edward Malet
Sir Edward Baldwin Malet, 4th Baronet, PC, GCMG, GCB was a British diplomat.Edward Malet came from a family of diplomats; his father was Sir Alexander Malet, British minister to Württemberg and later to the German Confederation. After three years at Eton College, Edward Malet entered the foreign...
, the British consul general in Egypt at the time, to a member of the Gladstone Cabinet offering his congratulations on the invasion, "You have fought the battle of all Christendom and history will acknowledge it. May I also venture to say that it has given the liberal party a new lease of popularity and power."
John Galbraith and Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot make a similar argument to Hopkins, though their argument focuses on how individuals within the British government bureaucracy used their positions to make the invasion appear as a more favorable option to Gladstone's cabinet. First, they describe a plot by Edward Malet
Edward Malet
Sir Edward Baldwin Malet, 4th Baronet, PC, GCMG, GCB was a British diplomat.Edward Malet came from a family of diplomats; his father was Sir Alexander Malet, British minister to Württemberg and later to the German Confederation. After three years at Eton College, Edward Malet entered the foreign...
in which he portrayed the Egyptian government as unstable to his superiors in the British cabinet in order to provoke a British military intervention, which Galbraith and al-Sayyid-Marsot write contributed to the decision to invade. They portray him as having been naive, that he believed that he could convince the British government to militarily intimidate the Egyptian government, though he never imagined a full-out invasion or occupation. They also describe the actions of Admiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of the British fleet that bombarded Alexandria, who personally hastened the start of the bombardment by exaggerating the danger posed by Orabi's forces in Alexandria to his ships in his telegrams back to the British government.
Initial British bombardment
The British fleet bombarded Alexandria from July 11-13, followed by British marines occupying it. The bombardment was very one sided, the British did not lose a single boat. Much of the city was destroyed by fires that broke out as a result of the bombardment. Orabi had his men start these fires to ruin the city that the British were taking over. The British then installed the KhediveKhedive
The term Khedive is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha , the Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, and vassal of the Ottoman Empire...
Tawfiq
Tewfik Pasha
HH Muhammed Tewfik Pasha ' was Khedive of Egypt and Sudan between 1879 and 1892, and the sixth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty.-Early life:...
, who declared Orabi a rebel and took away his political rights.
Orabi's response
Orabi then counteracted by obtaining a fatwaFatwa
A fatwā in the Islamic faith is a juristic ruling concerning Islamic law issued by an Islamic scholar. In Sunni Islam any fatwā is non-binding, whereas in Shia Islam it could be considered by an individual as binding, depending on his or her relation to the scholar. The person who issues a fatwā...
, which was authorized by Al Azhar shaykhs which stated that Tawfiq was a traitor who brought on the occupation of Egypt by a foreign nation and stated that he betrayed his religion. Orabi also ordered conscription
Conscription
Conscription is the compulsory enlistment of people in some sort of national service, most often military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in some countries to the present day under various names...
and he declared war on the United Kingdom.
British Expeditionary Force order of battle
The British army tried to reach Cairo through Alexandria but was stopped for five weeks at Kafr-el-DawwarKafr-el-Dawwar
Kafr-el-Dawwar is a city near Alexandria where a famous battle took place between an Egyptian army, headed by Ahmed Orabi, and British forces headed by Sir Archibald Alison, Bart....
.
In August, a British army of over 40,000, commanded by Garnet Wolseley
Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley
Field Marshal Garnet Joseph Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley, KP, GCB, OM, GCMG, VD, PC was an Anglo-Irish officer in the British Army. He served in Burma, the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, China, Canada, and widely throughout Africa—including his Ashanti campaign and the Nile Expedition...
, invaded the Suez Canal Zone. He was authorized to destroy Orabi's forces and clear the country of all other rebels.
Order of battle
Order of battle
In modern use, the order of battle is the identification, command structure, strength, and disposition of personnel, equipment, and units of an armed force participating in field operations. Various abbreviations are in use, including OOB, O/B, or OB, while ORBAT remains the most common in the...
of the British Expeditionary Force
- Commander: Lieutenant General Sir Garnet WolseleyGarnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount WolseleyField Marshal Garnet Joseph Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley, KP, GCB, OM, GCMG, VD, PC was an Anglo-Irish officer in the British Army. He served in Burma, the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, China, Canada, and widely throughout Africa—including his Ashanti campaign and the Nile Expedition...
- Chief of Staff: Lieutenant General Sir John AdyeJohn Miller AdyeGeneral Sir John Miller Adye GCB was a British general.-Military career:Born the son of Major James P. Adye, he was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on 1 November 1819...
1st Division (Lt Gen GHS Willis)
1st (Guards) Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen HRH The Duke of Connaught
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn was a member of the shared British and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha royal family who served as the Governor General of Canada, the 10th since Canadian Confederation.Born the seventh child and third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and...
)
- 2nd Battalion, Grenadier GuardsGrenadier GuardsThe Grenadier Guards is an infantry regiment of the British Army. It is the most senior regiment of the Guards Division and, as such, is the most senior regiment of infantry. It is not, however, the most senior regiment of the Army, this position being attributed to the Life Guards...
- 2nd Battalion, Coldstream GuardsColdstream GuardsHer Majesty's Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards, also known officially as the Coldstream Guards , is a regiment of the British Army, part of the Guards Division or Household Division....
- 1st Battalion, Scots GuardsScots GuardsThe Scots Guards is a regiment of the Guards Division of the British Army, whose origins lie in the personal bodyguard of King Charles I of England and Scotland...
2nd Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen Gerald Graham
Gerald Graham
Lieutenant General Sir Gerald Graham, VC GCB GCMG was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.-Early life:He was born in Acton, Middlesex, and after studying at...
)
- 1st Battalion, The Buffs (East Kent Regiment)
- 1st Battalion, Royal Irish Fusiliers (Princess Victoria’s)Royal Irish FusiliersThe Royal Irish Fusiliers was an Irish infantry regiment of the British Army, formed by the amalgamation of the 87th Regiment of Foot and the 89th Regiment of Foot in 1881. The regiment's first title in 1881 was Princess Victoria's , changed in 1920 to The Royal Irish Fusiliers...
- 2nd Battalion, Royal Irish Fusiliers (Princess Victoria’s)
- 2nd Battalion2nd Battalion, York and Lancaster RegimentThe 2nd Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment was formed by the redesignation of the 84th Regiment of Foot in 1881.-History:...
, York and Lancaster RegimentYork and Lancaster Regiment-History:It was formed in 1881 through the amalgamation of two other regiments:*65th Regiment*84th RegimentThe title of the regiment was derived not from the cities of York and Lancaster, or from the counties...
Divisional Troops
- 19th Hussars (2 Sqns)
- 2nd Battalion, Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry
- A Battery, 1st Field Brigade, Royal Artillery
- D Battery, 1st Field Brigade, Royal Artillery
- 24 Field Company, Royal Engineers
- 12 Company, Army Commissariat and Transport Corps
- 1 Bearer Company, Army Hospital Corps (Half)
- 3 Field Hospital, Army Hospital Corps
2nd Division (Lt Gen Sir Edward Hamley)
3rd (Highland) Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen Sir Edward Alison)
- 2nd Battalion, Highland Light InfantryHighland Light InfantryThe Highland Light Infantry was a regiment of the British Army from 1881 to 1959. In 1923 the regimental title was expanded to the Highland Light Infantry ...
- 1st Battalion, Black Watch (Royal Highlanders)Black WatchThe Black Watch, 3rd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland is an infantry battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland. The unit's traditional colours were retired in 2011 in a ceremony led by Queen Elizabeth II....
- 1st Battalion, Cameron HighlandersQueen's Own Cameron HighlandersThe Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders was an infantry regiment of the British Army formed in 1793. In 1961 it was merged with the Seaforth Highlanders to form the Queen's Own Highlanders...
- 1st Battalion, Gordon Highlanders
4th Infantry Brigade (Maj Gen Sir Evelyn Wood VC)
- 1st Battalion, The Royal Sussex Regiment
- 1st Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment (Princess Charlotte’s)Royal Berkshire RegimentThe Royal Berkshire Regiment was an infantry regiment of the line in the British Army, formed in 1881 by the amalgamation of the 49th Regiment of Foot and the 66th Regiment of Foot.The regiment was originally formed as The Princess Charlotte of Wales's , taking the...
- 1st Battalion, The South Staffordshire Regiment
- 1st Battalion, The King’s Shropshire Light Infantry
Divisional Troops
- 19th Hussars (2 Sqns)
- 3rd Battalion, The King’s Royal Rifle CorpsKing's Royal Rifle CorpsThe King's Royal Rifle Corps was a British Army infantry regiment, originally raised in colonial North America as the Royal Americans, and recruited from American colonists. Later ranked as the 60th Regiment of Foot, the regiment served for more than 200 years throughout the British Empire...
- I Battery, 2nd Field Brigade, Royal Artillery
- N Battery, 2nd Field Brigade, Royal Artillery
- 26 Field Company, Royal Engineers
- 11 Company, Army Commissariat and Transport Corps
- 2 Bearer Company, Army Hospital Corps (Half)
- 4 Field Hospital, Army Hospital Corps
- 5 Field Hospital, Army Hospital Corps
Indian Contingent (Maj Gen Sir Herbert Macpherson
Herbert Taylor MacPherson
Major-General Sir Herbert Taylor MacPherson VC, GCB, KCSI was a Scottish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.-Details:He was 30 years old, and a lieutenant in the 78th...
VC)
- 1st Battalion, Manchester RegimentThe Manchester RegimentThe Manchester Regiment was a regiment of the British army, formed in 1881 by the amalgamation of the 63rd Regiment of Foot and the 96th Regiment of Foot...
- 1st Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders
- 7th Bengal Infantry
- 20th Punjab Infantry
- 29th Baluch Infantry
- 7 (Mountain) Battery, Northern Division, Royal Garrison Artillery
- (plus their own Commissariat, Engineers etc.)
Cavalry Division (Maj Gen Drury Curzon Drury Lowe
Drury Curzon Drury-Lowe
Lieutenant-General Sir Drury Curzon Drury-Lowe GCB had a distinguished military career in the 19th century British Army.He was born on 3 January 1830 at Aston Lodge in Aston-on-Trent when he was called Drury Curzon Holden...
)
1st (Heavy) Cavalry Brigade (Brig Gen Sir Baker Creed Russell
Baker Russell
General Sir Baker Creed Russell GCB KCMG was an Australian-born British Army officer who served with distinction in the Indian Mutiny, Anglo-Ashanti War, Anglo-Zulu War and Egyptian War.-Early life:...
)
- Household Cavalry Regiment (1 Sqn each from the 1st Life Guards, 2nd Life Guards and Royal Horse Guards)
- 4th Dragoon Guards
- 7th Dragoon Guards
2nd (Bengal) Cavalry Brigade (Brig Gen HC Wilson)
- 2nd Bengal Cavalry
- 6th Bengal Cavalry
- 13th Bengal Lancers
Division Troops
- N Battery, 1 Horse Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery
- Mounted Infantry Battalion (formed from Mounted Coys of line infantry battalions)
- 17 Company, Army Commissariat and Transport
- 6 Field Hospital, Army Hospital Corps
Army Troops
- Naval Brigade
- Battalion, Royal Marine Light Infantry
- G Battery, 2nd Horse Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery
- F Battery, 1st Field Brigade, Royal Field Artillery
- H Battery, 1st Field Brigade, RFA
- C Battery, 3rd Field Brigade, RFA
- J Battery, 3rd Field Brigade, RFA
- T Battery, 3rd Field Brigade, RFA
- Royal Marine Artillery
- 1 Battery, London Division, Royal Garrison Artillery
- 4 Battery, London Division, RGA
- 5 Battery, London Division, RGA
- 5 Battery, Scottish Division, RGA
- 6 Battery, Scottish Division, RGA
Army Train
- A (Bridging) Troop, Royal Engineers
- C (Telegraph) Troop, RE
- Railway Troop, RE
- 8 Field Company, RE
- 17 Field Company, RE
- 18 Field Company, RE
- A Company, Queen’s Own Madras Sappers and Miners
- I Company, QOMS&M
- 8 Company, Army Commissariat and Transport Corps
- 15 Company, ACT Corps
- Auxiliary Company, ACT Corps
- 2 Bearer Company, Army Hospital Corps
- 1 Field Hospital, AHC
- 3 Field Hospital, AHC
- 7 Field Hospital, AHC
- 8 Field Hospital, AHC
- Army Post Office Corps (M Company 49th Middlesex Rifle Volunteers)
Battle of Tel el-Kebir
Orabi redeployed to defend CairoCairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
against Wolseley. His main force dug in at Tel el-Kebir, north of the railway and the Sweetwater Canal
Sweetwater Canal
Sweetwater Canal can mean:*A canal in Egypt running eastwards from the Nile near Cairo to the south end of the Suez Canal*A canal near Basra in Iraq...
, both of which linked Cairo to Ismailia
Ismaïlia
-Notable natives:*Osman Ahmed Osman, a famous and influential Egyptian engineer, contractor, entrepreneur, and politician, was born in this town on 6 April 1917....
on the canal. The defences were hastily prepared as there was little time to arrange them. Orabi's forces possessed 60 pieces of artillery and breech loading rifles. Wolseley made several personal reconnaissances, and determined that the Egyptians did not man outposts in front of their main defences at night, which made it possible for an attacking force to approach the defences under cover of darkness. Wolseley sent his force to approach the position by night and attacked frontally at dawn, which they did successfully, officially losing only 57 troops while killing approximately two thousand Egyptians. The Orabi forces were routed, and British cavalry pursued them and captured Cairo, which was undefended. Khedive
Khedive
The term Khedive is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha , the Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, and vassal of the Ottoman Empire...
power was then restored as the authority of Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
.
Trial of Orabi
Prime Minister Gladstone initially sought to put Orabi on trial and execute him, portraying him as "...a self-seeking tyrant whose oppression of the Egyptian people still left him enough time, in his capacity as a latter-day Saladin, to massacre Christians." After glancing through his captured diaries and various other evidence, there was little with which to "demonize" Orabi in a public trial. His charges were down-graded, after which he admitted to rebellion and was sent into exile.British occupation
British troops then occupied EgyptEgypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
until the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1922 and Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 was a treaty signed between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Egypt; it is officially known as The Treaty of Alliance Between His Majesty, in Respect of the United Kingdom, and His Majesty, the King of Egypt...
, giving gradual control back to the government of Egypt.
Hopkins argues that the British continued its occupation of Egypt after 1882 in order to guarantee British investments, "Britain had important interests to defend in Egypt and she was prepared to withdraw only if conditions guaranteeing the security of those interests were met - and they never were." Consistent with this view, investment in Egypt increased during the British occupation, interest rates fell, and bond prices rose.