Anusim
Encyclopedia
Anusim is a legal category of Jews
in halakha
(Jewish religious law) who were forced or coerced to abandon Judaism
against their will, typically while forcibly converted
to another religion. The term "anusim" itself is most properly translated as the "coerced [ones]" or the "forced [ones]".
The religious legal terms anús/anusáh/anusim were applied to those Jews who were forced to abandon Judaism against their will, and their children, but who do whatever is in their power to continue practicing Judaism under the forced condition. The terminology derives from the Talmud
ic phrase "aberá be ones", meaning "a forced transgression." The Hebrew term "ones" originally referred to any case where a Jew has been forced into any act against his or her will. The term anús is used in contradistinction to meshumad , which means a person who has voluntarily abandoned the practice of Jewish Law in whole or part.
has various classifications for those Jews who have abandoned, or are no longer committed to, the rabbinic Jewish
tradition, whether or not they have converted to another religion. The two most common descriptions are:
The main difference between a min, a meshumad, and the anusim is that the act of abandonment of Judaism is voluntary for a min and a meshumad, while for the anusim it is not.
in Germany
at the end of the 11th century. In his religious legal opinions, Rashi
, a French rabbi
who lived during this period, commented about the issue of anusim.
Some two centuries later, following the mass forced conversion
of Sephardi Jews
(those Jews with extended histories in Spain
and Portugal
, known jointly as Iberia
, or "Sefarad" in Hebrew) of the 14th and 15th centuries, the term "anusim" became widely used by Spanish rabbis and their successors for the following 600 years, henceforth becoming associated with Sephardic history.
The term, however, is properly applied to any Jew of any Jewish ethnic division
, and thus, since then, it has also been used to describe other forced or coerced Jews, such as the Mashadi Jews
of Persia (modern Iran
), who converted to Islam
in the public eye, but secretly practised Judaism at home, to the extent of living a dual-religious life to the fullest, being fully practising Muslims in public life, and fully practising Jews at home.
In non-rabbinic literature, the more commonly known Sephardic anusim are also referred to as:
The Catholic Church coined the first two terms, the third is more of a modern invention by historians, and the fourth is the insulting term Spanish antisemites gave to the anusim. All four terms are sociological, whereas anusim refers to a status in Jewish law.
. In normal circumstances, a person who abandons Jewish observance, or part of it, is classified as a meshumad. Such a person is still counted as a Jew for purposes of lineage, but is under a disability to claim any privilege pertaining to Jewish status: for example, he should not be counted in a minyan
, that is, a quorum
for religious services.
Anusim, by contrast, not only remain Jews by lineage but continue to count as fully qualified Jews for all purposes. Since the act of their original abandonment was done against the Jew’s will, the Jew under force may remain a kasher
Jew, as long as the anús keeps practising Jewish law to the best of his/her abilities under the coerced condition. In this sense, "kasher" is the rabbinic legal term applied to a Jew who adheres to rabbinic tradition and is accordingly not subject to any disqualification.
Hakham Se‘adyá ben Maimón ibn Danan
, one of the most respected Sephardic Sages after the Expulsion, in the 15th century stated:
Hakham BenSión Uziel
, the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of the State of Israel, stated in mid-20th c.
It follows that Hakham Uziel considered anusím as Jews, because only Jews can give or receive a Get, a Jewish divorce.
Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (Maimonides
) stated in the Mishneh Torah
Sefer Shofetím, Hilekhót Mumarím 3:3
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
in halakha
Halakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
(Jewish religious law) who were forced or coerced to abandon Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
against their will, typically while forcibly converted
Forced conversion
A forced conversion is the religious conversion or acceptance of a philosophy against the will of the subject, often with the threatened consequence of earthly penalties or harm. These consequences range from job loss and social isolation to incarceration, torture or death...
to another religion. The term "anusim" itself is most properly translated as the "coerced [ones]" or the "forced [ones]".
The religious legal terms anús/anusáh/anusim were applied to those Jews who were forced to abandon Judaism against their will, and their children, but who do whatever is in their power to continue practicing Judaism under the forced condition. The terminology derives from the Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
ic phrase "aberá be ones", meaning "a forced transgression." The Hebrew term "ones" originally referred to any case where a Jew has been forced into any act against his or her will. The term anús is used in contradistinction to meshumad , which means a person who has voluntarily abandoned the practice of Jewish Law in whole or part.
Meaning
Besides the term anusim, HalakhaHalakha
Halakha — also transliterated Halocho , or Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish law, including biblical law and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions.Judaism classically draws no distinction in its laws between religious and ostensibly non-religious life; Jewish...
has various classifications for those Jews who have abandoned, or are no longer committed to, the rabbinic Jewish
Rabbinic Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud...
tradition, whether or not they have converted to another religion. The two most common descriptions are:
- "Min" , or an apostate of Judaism, for a Jew who basically denies the existence of God; and
- "MeshumadHeresy in JudaismJewish heretics who are Jewish individuals whose works have, in part or in whole, been condemned as heretical by significant persons or groups in the larger Jewish community based on the classical teachings of Judaism and derived from Halakha -Minim:Hilchot Teshuva Chapter 3 Halacha 7 Five peoples...
" , or a heretic in Judaism, for a Jew who deliberately rebels against the observance of Jewish law.
The main difference between a min, a meshumad, and the anusim is that the act of abandonment of Judaism is voluntary for a min and a meshumad, while for the anusim it is not.
History of use
The term anusim became more frequently used after the forced conversion to Christianity of Ashkenazi JewsAshkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim , are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities along the Rhine in Germany from Alsace in the south to the Rhineland in the north. Ashkenaz is the medieval Hebrew name for this region and thus for Germany...
in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
at the end of the 11th century. In his religious legal opinions, Rashi
Rashi
Shlomo Yitzhaki , or in Latin Salomon Isaacides, and today generally known by the acronym Rashi , was a medieval French rabbi famed as the author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud, as well as a comprehensive commentary on the Tanakh...
, a French rabbi
Rabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
who lived during this period, commented about the issue of anusim.
Some two centuries later, following the mass forced conversion
Forced conversion
A forced conversion is the religious conversion or acceptance of a philosophy against the will of the subject, often with the threatened consequence of earthly penalties or harm. These consequences range from job loss and social isolation to incarceration, torture or death...
of Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews is a general term referring to the descendants of the Jews who lived in the Iberian Peninsula before their expulsion in the Spanish Inquisition. It can also refer to those who use a Sephardic style of liturgy or would otherwise define themselves in terms of the Jewish customs and...
(those Jews with extended histories in Spain
History of the Jews in Spain
Spanish Jews once constituted one of the largest and most prosperous Jewish communities under Muslim and Christian rule in Spain, before the majority, together with resident Muslims, were forced to convert to Catholicism, be expelled or be killed when Spain became united under the Catholic Monarchs...
and Portugal
History of the Jews in Portugal
The history of the Jews in Portugal reaches back over two thousand years and is directly related to Sephardi history, a Jewish ethnic division that represents communities who have originated in the Iberian Peninsula .-Before Portugal:...
, known jointly as Iberia
Iberia
The name Iberia refers to three historical regions of the old world:* Iberian Peninsula, in Southwest Europe, location of modern-day Portugal and Spain** Prehistoric Iberia...
, or "Sefarad" in Hebrew) of the 14th and 15th centuries, the term "anusim" became widely used by Spanish rabbis and their successors for the following 600 years, henceforth becoming associated with Sephardic history.
The term, however, is properly applied to any Jew of any Jewish ethnic division
Jewish ethnic divisions
Jewish ethnic divisions refers to a number of distinct communities within the world's ethnically Jewish population. Although considered one single self-identifying ethnicity, there are distinct ethnic divisions among Jews, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an...
, and thus, since then, it has also been used to describe other forced or coerced Jews, such as the Mashadi Jews
Mashhad
Mashhad , is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia Muslim world. It is also the only major Iranian city with an Arabic name. It is located east of Tehran, at the center of the Razavi Khorasan Province close to the borders of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Its...
of Persia (modern Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
), who converted to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
in the public eye, but secretly practised Judaism at home, to the extent of living a dual-religious life to the fullest, being fully practising Muslims in public life, and fully practising Jews at home.
In non-rabbinic literature, the more commonly known Sephardic anusim are also referred to as:
- "ConversoConversoA converso and its feminine form conversa was a Jew or Muslim—or a descendant of Jews or Muslims—who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries. Mass conversions once took place under significant government pressure...
s", meaning "converts [to Christianity]" in SpanishSpanish languageSpanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
, PortuguesePortuguese languagePortuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
and Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish). - "New ChristianNew ChristianNew Christian was a term used to refer to Iberian Jews and Muslims who converted to Roman Catholicism, and their known baptized descendants. The term was introduced by the Old Christians of Iberia who wanted to distinguish themselves from the conversos...
s", or "cristianos nuevos" in Spanish, and "cristãos novos" in Portuguese. - "Crypto-Jews", and
- "MarranoMarranoMarranos were Jews living in the Iberian peninsula who converted to Christianity rather than be expelled but continued to observe rabbinic Judaism in secret...
s", literally meaning swine in Spanish but also carrying the meaning of anusim. Also meaning "anusim" in Portuguese, but not swine, since marrão is the word for swine in Portuguese.
The Catholic Church coined the first two terms, the third is more of a modern invention by historians, and the fourth is the insulting term Spanish antisemites gave to the anusim. All four terms are sociological, whereas anusim refers to a status in Jewish law.
Anusim
The subject of anusim has a special place in rabbinic literatureRabbinic literature
Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writing, and thus corresponds with the Hebrew term...
. In normal circumstances, a person who abandons Jewish observance, or part of it, is classified as a meshumad. Such a person is still counted as a Jew for purposes of lineage, but is under a disability to claim any privilege pertaining to Jewish status: for example, he should not be counted in a minyan
Minyan
A minyan in Judaism refers to the quorum of ten Jewish adults required for certain religious obligations. According to many non-Orthodox streams of Judaism adult females count in the minyan....
, that is, a quorum
Quorum
A quorum is the minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly necessary to conduct the business of that group...
for religious services.
Anusim, by contrast, not only remain Jews by lineage but continue to count as fully qualified Jews for all purposes. Since the act of their original abandonment was done against the Jew’s will, the Jew under force may remain a kasher
Kashrut
Kashrut is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with halakha is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér , meaning "fit" Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus) is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with halakha (Jewish law) is termed...
Jew, as long as the anús keeps practising Jewish law to the best of his/her abilities under the coerced condition. In this sense, "kasher" is the rabbinic legal term applied to a Jew who adheres to rabbinic tradition and is accordingly not subject to any disqualification.
Anusim
In regards to Anusim:Hakham Se‘adyá ben Maimón ibn Danan
Saadia Ibn Danan
Rabbi Saadiah ben Maimon ben Moshe ibn Danan was a grammarian of Hebrew and Arabic, poet and a halachic authority. He served as a dayan in Granada, and after the expulsion of Jews from Spain settled in Oran...
, one of the most respected Sephardic Sages after the Expulsion, in the 15th century stated:
- Indeed, when it comes to lineage, all the people of IsraelIsraeliteAccording to the Bible the Israelites were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the monarchic period .The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew ישראל...
are brethren. We are all the sons of one father, the rebels (reshaimHeresy in Orthodox JudaismHeresy in Orthodox Judaism is principally defined as departure from the traditional Jewish principles of faith. Mainstream Orthodox Judaism holds that rejection of the simple meaning of Maimonides' 13 principles of Jewish faith involves heresy, although the status of creed in Medieval Jewish...
) and criminals, the heretics (meshumadim) and forced ones (anusim), and the proselytes (gerimConversion to JudaismConversion to Judaism is a formal act undertaken by a non-Jewish person who wishes to be recognised as a full member of the Jewish community. A Jewish conversion is both a religious act and an expression of association with the Jewish people...
) who are attached to the house of JacobJacobJacob "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel , as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.In the...
. All these are Israelites. Even if they left God or denied Him, or violated His Law, the yoke of that Law is still upon their shoulders and will never be removed from them.
Hakham BenSión Uziel
Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel
Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel was the Sephardi chief rabbi of the British Mandate of Palestine from 1939 to 1948, and of Israel from 1948 to 1954.-Biography:...
, the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of the State of Israel, stated in mid-20th c.
- And we still have to clarify on the (subject of) Anusím, to whom the government forbids them to perform Halakhicly valid marriages, if it's necessary to say that their wives must have a Get to permit them (to marry another man), for the reason that, by force of the Law (Hazaqáh), a man does not have intercourse for promiscuity (zenút). . . (In our very case), we deal with those who converted and kept Torah in secrecy and hide their religion because of the gentile surveillance, we say that they do have intercourse for the sake of marriage.
It follows that Hakham Uziel considered anusím as Jews, because only Jews can give or receive a Get, a Jewish divorce.
Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (Maimonides
Maimonides
Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
) stated in the Mishneh Torah
Mishneh Torah
The Mishneh Torah subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka is a code of Jewish religious law authored by Maimonides , one of history's foremost rabbis...
Sefer Shofetím, Hilekhót Mumarím 3:3
- But their children and grandchildren [of Jewish rebels], who, misguided by their parents . . . and trained in their views, are like children taken captive by the gentiles and raised in their laws and customs (weghidelúhu haGoyím `al dathám), whose status is that of an ’anús [one who abjures Jewish law under duress], who, although he later learns that he is a Jew, meets Jews, observes them practice their laws, is nevertheless to be regarded as an ’anús, since he was reared in the erroneous ways of his parents . . . Therefore efforts should be made to bring them back in repentance (LeFikakh rawí leHah zirán biTeshubáh), to draw them near by friendly relations, so that they may return to the strength-giving source, i.e., the Toráh
See also
- Allahdad incidentAllahdad incidentIn the 1839 Allahdad incident, the Jews of Mashhad, Iran, now known as the Mashhadi Jews, were coerced into converting to Islam.Mashhad's ruler had ordered his men to enter Jewish homes and mobs attacked the Jewish Community, burning down the synagogue, looting homes, abducting girls, and killing...
- Who is a Jew
- Conversion to JudaismConversion to JudaismConversion to Judaism is a formal act undertaken by a non-Jewish person who wishes to be recognised as a full member of the Jewish community. A Jewish conversion is both a religious act and an expression of association with the Jewish people...
- Crypto-JudaismCrypto-JudaismCrypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism while publicly professing to be of another faith; practitioners are referred to as "crypto-Jews"...
- MarranoMarranoMarranos were Jews living in the Iberian peninsula who converted to Christianity rather than be expelled but continued to observe rabbinic Judaism in secret...
- NeofitiNeofitiThe neofiti were a group of Italian anusim, also known as crypto-Jews, living in Southern Italy.-History:The Jewish ancestors of the neofiti were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism in 1493. They continued to secretly practice certain elements of Judaism, however, as did many of their descendants...
Further reading
- Gitlitz, David. 'Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews', Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2002.
- The Jews and the Crusaders: the Hebrew chronicles of the First and Second Crusades (translator and editor: Shlomo Eidelberg). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977 ISBN 0299070603
- The chronicle of Solomon bar Simson.--The chronicle of Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan.--The narrative of the Old Persecutions, or Mainz anonymous.--Sefer Zekhirah, or The book of remembrance, of Rabbi Ephraim of Bonn.
- Crisis and Leadership: epistles of Maimonides; texts translated and notes by Abraham Halkin; discussions by David Hartman. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1985 ISBN 0827602383 (reissued by the publisher as: Epistles of MaimonidesMaimonidesMoses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
: Crisis and Leadership in 1993). - Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: an historical revision. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997 ISBN 0297817191
- José FaurJosé FaurJosé Faur is a Sepharadi Hakham , teacher and scholar. He was a Rabbi in the Syrian-Jewish community in Brooklyn for many years and brought many people closer to Judaism and to the Tora...
, In the Shadow of History: Jews and conversos at the dawn of modernity. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1992 ISBN 0791408019