Arab Kingdom of Syria
Encyclopedia
The Arab Kingdom of Syria is the first modern Arab state to come into existence, and although it officially lasted less than a year (8 March-24 July 1920), its existence has had a lasting impact in the Arab world to this day. Throughout its existence it was led by Sharif Hussein bin Ali
’s son Faisal bin Hussein. Faisal was a heroic figure in the Arab Revolt
against the Ottoman Empire
and is often remembered through the writings of T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) and later as the first King of Iraq.
with the French. Ultimately, the implementation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement would lead to the undermining and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. Despite the significance of the Arab Revolt to modern Arab countries formed in its wake, at the time there was significant distrust and even opposition to the idea of an Arab Kingdom or series of Arab Kingdoms. This is due in part to the heavy influence of the French and the British in compelling the revolt and establishment of what is considered to be by modern standards puppet states. Critics claim that this involvement of foreign powers in handing out large sums of money and military support to establish an empire that would be led by imperial aspirants, rather than legitimate Arab nationalists, is the primary cause for the lack of duration of the majority of the early Hashemite
Kingdoms (Kingdom of Hejaz
and Kingdom of Iraq
). Critics go on further to claim it was anathema to many Arabs that the family of the Sharif of Mecca
, the Hashemites, could wrest control from the Ottoman Sultan, with whom their loyalty had rested for centuries.
, the Egyptian Expeditionary forces of Edmund Allenby captured Damascus on September 30, 1918, and shortly thereafter on October 3 Faisal entered. The jubilation would be short lived, as Faisal would soon be made aware of the Sykes-Picot agreement. Faisal had come to expect an independent Arab Kingdom in the name of his father but was soon told of the division of territory and how Syria fell under French protective power. Faisal obviously did not appreciate this betrayal by the British but found reassurance in the knowledge that the actual settlement would be worked out at a later date when the war had ended. He was probably hoping that by then the British would have changed their support for French pretensions in Syria. Thus on October 5, with the permission of General Allenby, Faisal announced the establishment of a fully and absolutely independent Arab constitutional government. Faisal announced it would be an Arab government based on justice and equality for all Arabs regardless of religion. Much to the chagrin of French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau
, the establishment of a semi-independent Arab state without international recognition and under the auspices of the British was disconcerting. Even reassurances by Allenby that all actions taken were provisional did not ease the looming tensions between the British, the French and the Arabs. For Arab nationalists, and many of the Arabs who fought in the Arab Revolt, this was the realization of a long hard-fought goal.
the allied victors in World War I negotiated the peace terms for the defeated nations of the Central Powers
. Many of these negotiations were over control of areas within former empires, such as the Ottoman Empire. Even when negotiations for a more permanent status of the Kingdom of Syria occurred at the Paris Peace Conference it was still a major problem as Faisal provoked a diplomatic conflict between the French and British when he pushed for Arab independence. An American compromise resulted in an international agreement on setting up a commission to determine the wishes of the inhabitants and to ultimately prove whether the inhabitants truly desired to be a mandate of the French or an independent kingdom. Even though they initially supported the idea, Britain and France would eventually back out creating the solely American King-Crane Commission
. The findings of the commission showed native support for an independent Arab kingdom of Syria . Yet around the same time the commission was conceived, it would be determined at a meeting in May 1919 between the French and British Prime Ministers in Quai d’Orsay that the fate of Syria would be decided between the two of them regardless of King-Crane. At this meeting it was decided that in return for a guarantee of French control in Syria the British would gain mandate control of Mosul and Palestine. To many historians it is strange that Clemenceau would give up so much territory that was under French sphere of influence to have an ironclad guarantee over a territory that was essentially under French influence to begin with. Nonetheless, this agreement would, unbeknownst to Faisal, render him stuck with accepting whatever power the French would allow him to have. It may seem strange that the French and the British who were historic rivals had reconciled, but the devastation of World War I had caused them to become close in geo-strategic terms. The British could either cooperate with the French in realizing their strategic interests or risk another outbreak of war due to violation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Having decided the influence and power of the French was more valuable than that of the Arabs it was decided that the British, despite being strong allies with the Arabs, would have to give up any promises concerning Syria.
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(the Young Arab Society) to make preparations for a national congress. These Syrian nationalist societies advocated complete independence for an Arab Kingdom uniting the Arab world under Faisal. The King-Crane Commission which also arose out of the disputes at the Paris Peace Conference encouraged the need to unify and a hasty election was called including representatives from all over the Arab lands, which included Palestine and Lebanon although French officials prevented many of their representatives from arriving. The first official session of the Syrian Congress was held on June 3, 1919 and al-Fatat member Hashim al-Atassi
was elected its president. On June 25 the King-Crane Commission arrived in Damascus to a flurry of leaflets which said “Independence or Death”. On July 2 the Syrian Congress passed a number of resolutions pertaining to the formation of Syria as a completely independent constitutional monarchy with Faisal as king, asking for assistance from the United States, and the refusal of any rights claimed by the French. This congress is considered by many to be the first national parliament in the history of Syria. They clearly voiced the desire of the Arabs in Syria, if not the Arab world in general. Its significance to the Arab world to this day is staggering. Having representation under one independent and free country is especially important to the Palestinians who were represented for the first time in this Congress. The hopes of Faisal that either the British or Americans would come to his aid and intervene against the French quickly faded with what many consider the defining catalyst for the creation and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria: the Anglo-French Agreement. The Anglo-French Agreement provided for the withdrawal of British troops from Syria and signaled the end of the British military government of Syria. Eventually, Faisal would be forced into negotiations with Clemenceau in January 1920 which stipulated that the French would uphold the existence of the Syrian state and would not station troops in Syria as long as the French government remained the only government supplying advisers, counselors and technical experts. News of this compromise did not bode well with Faisal’s vehemently anti-French and independence minded supporters who immediately pressured Faisal to reverse his commitment to France, which he did. In the aftermath of this reversal, violent attacks against French forces occurred and the Syrian Congress assembled in March 1920 to declare Faisal the king of Syria as well as to officially set up the Arab Kingdom of Syria with Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister. This action was immediately repudiated by the British and French and the San Remo Conference
was called together by the League of Nations
in April 1920 to explicitly establish the mandate of the French over Syria. This was in turn repudiated by Faisal and his supporters. After months of instability and lack of authority to make good on promises to the French, the commander of French forces General Henri Gouraud gave an ultimatum to King Faisal declaring he surrender or fight on July 14, 1920.
resulted in a crushing Syrian defeat and the capture of Damascus on July 24, 1920. The French mandate of Syria
was put into effect thereafter. The Arab Kingdom, through its short and tumultuous existence, would become a subject of great inspiration to later Arab liberation movements. It would be the often-repeated story of an Arab people breaking out from their colonial bonds only to be castigated for their revolutionary fervor and resistance to the imperial powers. The symbolism of the fall of the Kingdom of Syria also imparted deep mistrust of European powers, who were seen as liars and oppressors. The actions of the Arab Kingdom of Syria and of Faisal continually inspires countries Arab leaders and movements seeking to fight foreign influence and establish sovereign nations to this day. Yet the demise of the Arab Kingdom of Syria also serves as a chilling reminder of the overwhelming military might that can be imposed on a regime that does not serve the interests of a major world power.
Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca
Sayyid Hussein bin Ali, GCB was the Sharif of Mecca, and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917, when he proclaimed himself King of Hejaz, which received international recognition. He initiated the Arab Revolt in 1916 against the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman Empire during the course of the...
’s son Faisal bin Hussein. Faisal was a heroic figure in the Arab Revolt
Arab Revolt
The Arab Revolt was initiated by the Sherif Hussein bin Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Turks and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen.- Background :...
against the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
and is often remembered through the writings of T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) and later as the first King of Iraq.
Foundations
The Arab Revolt and the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence are crucial factors in the foundations of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. In the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence the promises of an Arab Kingdom were made by the British in return for an Arab uprising against the Ottomans. As the promises of independence were being made by the British, separate agreements were being made including the Sykes-Picot AgreementSykes-Picot Agreement
The Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916 was a secret agreement between the governments of the United Kingdom and France, with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in Western Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during World War I...
with the French. Ultimately, the implementation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement would lead to the undermining and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. Despite the significance of the Arab Revolt to modern Arab countries formed in its wake, at the time there was significant distrust and even opposition to the idea of an Arab Kingdom or series of Arab Kingdoms. This is due in part to the heavy influence of the French and the British in compelling the revolt and establishment of what is considered to be by modern standards puppet states. Critics claim that this involvement of foreign powers in handing out large sums of money and military support to establish an empire that would be led by imperial aspirants, rather than legitimate Arab nationalists, is the primary cause for the lack of duration of the majority of the early Hashemite
Hashemite
Hashemite is the Latinate version of the , transliteration: Hāšimī, and traditionally refers to those belonging to the Banu Hashim, or "clan of Hashim", a clan within the larger Quraish tribe...
Kingdoms (Kingdom of Hejaz
Kingdom of Hejaz
The Kingdom of Hejaz was a state in the Hejaz region, ruled by the Hashemite family. The kingdom was annexed by Nejd and merged into the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz in the mid 1920s, which would eventually be known as Saudi Arabia in 1932.-Kings of Hejaz:...
and Kingdom of Iraq
Kingdom of Iraq
The Kingdom of Iraq was the sovereign state of Iraq during and after the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. The League of Nations mandate started in 1920. The kingdom began in August 1921 with the coronation of Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi as King Faisal I...
). Critics go on further to claim it was anathema to many Arabs that the family of the Sharif of Mecca
Sharif of Mecca
The Sharif of Mecca or Hejaz was the title of the former governors of Hejaz and a traditional steward of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina...
, the Hashemites, could wrest control from the Ottoman Sultan, with whom their loyalty had rested for centuries.
The Arab Constitutional Government
Near the end of World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, the Egyptian Expeditionary forces of Edmund Allenby captured Damascus on September 30, 1918, and shortly thereafter on October 3 Faisal entered. The jubilation would be short lived, as Faisal would soon be made aware of the Sykes-Picot agreement. Faisal had come to expect an independent Arab Kingdom in the name of his father but was soon told of the division of territory and how Syria fell under French protective power. Faisal obviously did not appreciate this betrayal by the British but found reassurance in the knowledge that the actual settlement would be worked out at a later date when the war had ended. He was probably hoping that by then the British would have changed their support for French pretensions in Syria. Thus on October 5, with the permission of General Allenby, Faisal announced the establishment of a fully and absolutely independent Arab constitutional government. Faisal announced it would be an Arab government based on justice and equality for all Arabs regardless of religion. Much to the chagrin of French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau
Georges Clemenceau
Georges Benjamin Clemenceau was a French statesman, physician and journalist. He served as the Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909, and again from 1917 to 1920. For nearly the final year of World War I he led France, and was one of the major voices behind the Treaty of Versailles at the...
, the establishment of a semi-independent Arab state without international recognition and under the auspices of the British was disconcerting. Even reassurances by Allenby that all actions taken were provisional did not ease the looming tensions between the British, the French and the Arabs. For Arab nationalists, and many of the Arabs who fought in the Arab Revolt, this was the realization of a long hard-fought goal.
Determining the Status of the Kingdom
At the Paris Peace ConferenceParis Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
the allied victors in World War I negotiated the peace terms for the defeated nations of the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
. Many of these negotiations were over control of areas within former empires, such as the Ottoman Empire. Even when negotiations for a more permanent status of the Kingdom of Syria occurred at the Paris Peace Conference it was still a major problem as Faisal provoked a diplomatic conflict between the French and British when he pushed for Arab independence. An American compromise resulted in an international agreement on setting up a commission to determine the wishes of the inhabitants and to ultimately prove whether the inhabitants truly desired to be a mandate of the French or an independent kingdom. Even though they initially supported the idea, Britain and France would eventually back out creating the solely American King-Crane Commission
King-Crane Commission
The King-Crane Commission was an official investigation by the United States government during the summer of 1919 concerning the disposition of non-Turkish areas within the former Ottoman Empire...
. The findings of the commission showed native support for an independent Arab kingdom of Syria . Yet around the same time the commission was conceived, it would be determined at a meeting in May 1919 between the French and British Prime Ministers in Quai d’Orsay that the fate of Syria would be decided between the two of them regardless of King-Crane. At this meeting it was decided that in return for a guarantee of French control in Syria the British would gain mandate control of Mosul and Palestine. To many historians it is strange that Clemenceau would give up so much territory that was under French sphere of influence to have an ironclad guarantee over a territory that was essentially under French influence to begin with. Nonetheless, this agreement would, unbeknownst to Faisal, render him stuck with accepting whatever power the French would allow him to have. It may seem strange that the French and the British who were historic rivals had reconciled, but the devastation of World War I had caused them to become close in geo-strategic terms. The British could either cooperate with the French in realizing their strategic interests or risk another outbreak of war due to violation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Having decided the influence and power of the French was more valuable than that of the Arabs it was decided that the British, despite being strong allies with the Arabs, would have to give up any promises concerning Syria.
The Creation of the Arab Kingdom of Syria
While events in Europe that would eventually render the Arab Kingdom of Syria into a French mandate transpired, it would also ironically catalyze Syrian nationalist societies like al-FatatAl-fatat
Al-Fatat or the Young Arab Society was founded in 1911 by Arab nationalist, Izzat Darwaza .It was a secret Arab nationalist organization under the Ottoman Empire. Its aims were to gain independence and unity for various Arab nations then under the Ottoman rule. It found adherents in areas such as...
(the Young Arab Society) to make preparations for a national congress. These Syrian nationalist societies advocated complete independence for an Arab Kingdom uniting the Arab world under Faisal. The King-Crane Commission which also arose out of the disputes at the Paris Peace Conference encouraged the need to unify and a hasty election was called including representatives from all over the Arab lands, which included Palestine and Lebanon although French officials prevented many of their representatives from arriving. The first official session of the Syrian Congress was held on June 3, 1919 and al-Fatat member Hashim al-Atassi
Hashim al-Atassi
Hashim Bay Khalid al-Atassi was a Syrian nationalist, statesman and its President from 1936 to 1939, 1949 to 1951, and 1954 to 1955.- Background and early career :...
was elected its president. On June 25 the King-Crane Commission arrived in Damascus to a flurry of leaflets which said “Independence or Death”. On July 2 the Syrian Congress passed a number of resolutions pertaining to the formation of Syria as a completely independent constitutional monarchy with Faisal as king, asking for assistance from the United States, and the refusal of any rights claimed by the French. This congress is considered by many to be the first national parliament in the history of Syria. They clearly voiced the desire of the Arabs in Syria, if not the Arab world in general. Its significance to the Arab world to this day is staggering. Having representation under one independent and free country is especially important to the Palestinians who were represented for the first time in this Congress. The hopes of Faisal that either the British or Americans would come to his aid and intervene against the French quickly faded with what many consider the defining catalyst for the creation and destruction of the Arab Kingdom of Syria: the Anglo-French Agreement. The Anglo-French Agreement provided for the withdrawal of British troops from Syria and signaled the end of the British military government of Syria. Eventually, Faisal would be forced into negotiations with Clemenceau in January 1920 which stipulated that the French would uphold the existence of the Syrian state and would not station troops in Syria as long as the French government remained the only government supplying advisers, counselors and technical experts. News of this compromise did not bode well with Faisal’s vehemently anti-French and independence minded supporters who immediately pressured Faisal to reverse his commitment to France, which he did. In the aftermath of this reversal, violent attacks against French forces occurred and the Syrian Congress assembled in March 1920 to declare Faisal the king of Syria as well as to officially set up the Arab Kingdom of Syria with Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister. This action was immediately repudiated by the British and French and the San Remo Conference
San Remo conference
The San Remo Conference was an international meeting of the post-World War I Allied Supreme Council, held in Sanremo, Italy, from 19 to 26 April 1920. It was attended by the four Principal Allied Powers of World War I who were represented by the prime ministers of Britain , France and Italy and...
was called together by the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
in April 1920 to explicitly establish the mandate of the French over Syria. This was in turn repudiated by Faisal and his supporters. After months of instability and lack of authority to make good on promises to the French, the commander of French forces General Henri Gouraud gave an ultimatum to King Faisal declaring he surrender or fight on July 14, 1920.
The End of the Arab Kingdom
Worried about the results of a long bloody fight with the French, King Faisal himself surrendered but his message would not reach the general and King Faisal’s defense minister, ignoring the King, led an army to Maysalun to defend Syria from French advance. The Battle of MaysalunBattle of Maysalun
The Battle of Maysalun , also called The Battle of Maysalun Pass, took place between Syrian and French forces about 12 miles west of Damascus near the town of Maysalun on July 23, 1920.-Background:...
resulted in a crushing Syrian defeat and the capture of Damascus on July 24, 1920. The French mandate of Syria
French Mandate of Syria
Officially the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire...
was put into effect thereafter. The Arab Kingdom, through its short and tumultuous existence, would become a subject of great inspiration to later Arab liberation movements. It would be the often-repeated story of an Arab people breaking out from their colonial bonds only to be castigated for their revolutionary fervor and resistance to the imperial powers. The symbolism of the fall of the Kingdom of Syria also imparted deep mistrust of European powers, who were seen as liars and oppressors. The actions of the Arab Kingdom of Syria and of Faisal continually inspires countries Arab leaders and movements seeking to fight foreign influence and establish sovereign nations to this day. Yet the demise of the Arab Kingdom of Syria also serves as a chilling reminder of the overwhelming military might that can be imposed on a regime that does not serve the interests of a major world power.