Arbëresh language
Encyclopedia
Arbëreshë, also known as Arbërisht, is an ethnolect
spoken by the Arbëreshë, the group of Albanian-speaking minorities in Italy
.
dialect spoken in southern Albania
, and is spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Calabria
, Molise
, Puglia, Basilicata
, Campania
, Abruzzi, and Sicily
. All dialects are closely related to each other but are not entirely mutually intelligible.
The Arbëresh language retains many archaisms of medieval Albanian from the pre-Ottoman
invasion of Albania in the 15th century. It also retains Greek language
elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation. It has also preserved some conservative features that were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbërisht gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/). It sounds more archaic than Standard Albanian.
Arbërisht was commonly called 'Albanese' (Albanian in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Until recently, Arbërisht speakers had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Until the 1980s Arbërisht was exclusively a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Church
, and Arbëreshë people had no practical affiliation with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they did not use this form in writing or in media. When a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Italy in the 1990s and came into contact with local Arbëreshë communities, the differences and similarities were for the first time made known. There are mixed feelings towards the "new Albanians".
Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language.
Arbërisht has been under a slow decline in recent decades, but is currently experiencing a revival in many villages in Italy. Figures such as Zef Skirò Di Maxho
have done much work on school books and other language learning tools in the language, producing two books 'Udha e Mbarë' and 'Udhëtimi', both used in schools in the village of Piana degli Albanesi
.
is a variety of the Arbëresh language. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese
and San Giorgio Albanese
in Calabria
by approximately 3,000 people. Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects.
The letter "Ë" is pronounced as either a schwa
[ə] or as a near-close near-back vowel [ʊ̜]. So the word "Arbëresh" is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbʊ̜ˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect.
Y to I
Arbërisht lacks the close front rounded vowel
[y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel
[i]. For example "ty" ('you') becomes "ti", "hyni" ('enter') becomes "hini".
The letter "GJ" is pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive
[ɡʲ] rather than a voiced palatal plosive
[ɟ] as in Albanian. Therefore, the word "gjith" ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ].
GL
In some words, Albanian "GJ", Arbëresh has preserved the consonant cluster "GL"; e.g. "glet" not "gjet" ('s/he looks like...').
H
The letter "H" is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative
[x] (a sound also found in Greek
: "χαρά" [xaˈra], 'joy'). As such, the Albanian word "ha" ('eat') is pronounced [xɑ], not [hɑ] as in Albanian.
HJ
Arbëresh has a palatalized palatalized voiceless velar fricative
, [xʲ]. Therefore, the word "hjedh" ('throw') is pronounced [xʲɛθ]. The letter combination HJ is present in a few Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh.
LL
The letter "LL" is pronounced as a voiced velar fricative
[ɣ] (also found in Greek: "γάλα" [ˈɣala], 'milk'). As such, the Albanian word "llah" ('to eat until stuffed') is pronounced [ɣɑx], not [ɫɑh] as in Albanian.
Q
The letter "Q" is pronounced as a palatalized voiceless velar plosive
[kʲ] rather than a voiceless palatal plosive
[c] as in Albanian. Therefore, the word "qiell" ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ] and the word "shqip" ('eagle') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp].
KL
Arbërisht has preserved the consonant cluster "KL" e.g. "klumësht" not "qumësht" ('milk') or "klisha" instead of "qisha" ('church').
Arbëresh has retained an archaic sysytem of pronouncing consonants in their final positions. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are: b, d, dh, g, gj, ll, v, x, xh, z, zh.
B
devoices to P: e.g. 'thelb' (clove) - 'thelp.'
D
devoices to T: e.g. 'vend' (place) - 'vent.'
DH
devoices to TH: e.g. 'zgledh' (read) - 'zgleth.'
G
devoices to K: e.g. 'lig' (bad) - 'lik.'
GJ
devoices to Q: 'zogj' (chicks) - 'zoq.'
J
voices to HJ: 'vaj' (oil) - 'vahj.'
LL
devoices to H: 'uthull' (vinegar) - 'uthuh.'
X
devoices to C: 'ndanx' (near) - 'ndanc.'
Z
devoices to S: 'loz' (dance) - 'los.'
ZH
devoices to SH: 'gozhda' (pin) - 'goshda.'
[ɣ] as in the pronunciation of the Arbëresh letter 'll', this sound is often represented by the letters 'GH' in the Arbëresh orthography.
For example:
Ghajdhur/Gajdhur (donkey)
is pronounced (ɣajður)
Grish (invite)
is pronounced (ɣriʃ)
.
with their corresponding Greek
words that have either been lost in standard Albanian or are a result of Greek influence on the Arbëresh language via the Byzantine church or their proximity to Greek-speaking populations in their original villages in Albania.
Examples:
Alongside the Greek component in Arbëresh, there is a considerable vocabulary derived from Sicilian
and other southern italian dialacts. Many of these words have retained their original meanings where Sicilian has given way to Italian in everyday speech amongst the non-Arbëresh Sicilian people.
Examples:
There is divided opinion amongst the Arbëresh people regarding the supposed purity of the Arbëresh language, some seek to purify it of its Sicilian or other non-Albanian elements, whilst others consider this element to be authentic and representative of actual spoken Arbëresh as a living language and not a 16th century relic of old Albanian, much in the same way as the Sicilian element is authentic to the Maltese language.
Examples:
In the past tense this conjugates as follows:
(Babiniotis 1998). Its native equivalents (Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) formerly were the self-designation of Albanians in general. Both "Arbëria" and "Albania/Albanian" go further back to name forms attested since antiquity.
Within the Arbëresh communit the language is often referred to as "Tarbrisht" or "Gjegje." It is not known why the term "gjegje" is used, however, this does mean "listen" in Arbërisht.
Examples of Italian names and their Arbëresh equivalents:
, which is the eldest sub-dialect of Arbërisht, part of the Tosk dialect group of Albanian. It was to Thesprotia, which is today northern Greece
, Tzameria and Epirus
, and subsequently taken to Italy from there. Italo-Arbërisht has retained some words identical to Greek words dhrom 'road', from δρόμος; Ne 'yes', from ναι, in the village of Greci
. Italo-Arbërisht and Greco-Arbërisht
have a mutually intelligible vocabulary base, the unintelligible elements of the two dialects stem from the usage of Italian or Greek modernisms in the absence of native ones.
Spoken Arbërisht is internally richly diversified into sub-dialects, and no further standardization towards a common (spoken or written) Standard Arbërisht has taken place. At the same time, Arbërisht speakers do not use Standard Albanian as their standard language either, as they are generally not literate in the standard Albanian orthography, and are not reported to use spoken-language media in Standard Albanian. In this sense, then, Arbërisht is not functionally subordinated to Standard Albanian as a dachsprache ("roof language"), in the way dialects of a national language within the same country usually are.
, which is used on street signs in the villages as well as taught in schools.
Zoti : Gjergj, do ti të marrëshë për grua Lina çë ke këtú te ana, si urdhuron Klisha Shejte, e të qëndrosh lidhur me atë në të mirën si edhé në të ligën gjithë ditët e gjellës tënde?
Priest: Do you Gjergj want to take as your legitimate wife Lina who is present here according to the instructions of the Holy Church and to be faithful through the good and the bad all of your life?
Dhëndërri: O, e dua!
Groom: Yes, I do want that!
Zoti: Bekuar kloft Perëndia jínë ka herë, naní e për gjithëmonë e për jetë të jetëvet.
Priest: blessed be our God for all time, now and always in the centuries of centuries.
Populli: Amín.
People: Amen.
Zoti: Në paqe parkalesjëm t'ën Zonë.
Priest: In peace we pray to the Lord.
Populli: Lipisí, o i Madh'yn'Zot.
People: Our Great God, we beseech you.
Bekimi të unazavet
Zoti: Me këtë unazë shërbëtori i Perëndis Gjergj lidhet me shërbëtorën e Perëndis Lina në embër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit Shejt.
Priest: The servant of God Gjergj is tied to the servant of God Lina, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Zoti jepë krinjët e këndon Msalmin 127:
Të limë atá çë i trëmben t'ynë Zoti e çë jecjën te udhët e Tij.
the priest delivers the candles and intones Psalm 127
Make happy those who fear the Lord and may they walk in His ways.
Lëvdi tij, o i madh'yn'Zot, lëvdi tij. Dhóksa si, o Theós imón, dhóksa si
Glory to you, our God, glory to you.
Se ti ka hashë bukën e shërbëtyrës s'duarvet tote. Lumë ti e fatbardhë ka jeshë. Jotë shoqe ka jet si dhri me pemë te muret e shpis tënde. Bijët tatë si degë ullinjësh rrethë triesës tënde. Shi këstú ka jet bekuar njeriu çë ka trëmbësirën e Perëndisë.
That you will eat the bread of the work of your hands. You will be happy and enjoy all that is good.
See your wife as a fertile vine in the intimacy of your home.
That your daughters will be like olive branches around your table.
That those who fear the Lord will be blessed.
Ethnolect
Ethnolect is a variety of a language spoken by a certain ethnic/cultural subgroup and serves as a distinguishing mark of social identity. The term combines the concepts of an ethnic group and dialect....
spoken by the Arbëreshë, the group of Albanian-speaking minorities in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
.
Classification
Arbëresh derives from the ToskTosk Albanian
Tosk is the southern dialect of the Albanian language. The line of demarcation between Tosk and Gheg is the Shkumbin River. Tosk is the basis of the standard Albanian language.- Tosks :...
dialect spoken in southern Albania
Albania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
, and is spoken in Southern Italy in the regions of Calabria
Calabria
Calabria , in antiquity known as Bruttium, is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of the Italian Peninsula. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro....
, Molise
Molise
Molise is a region of Southern Italy, the second smallest of the regions. It was formerly part of the region of Abruzzi e Molise and now a separate entity...
, Puglia, Basilicata
Basilicata
Basilicata , also known as Lucania, is a region in the south of Italy, bordering on Campania to the west, Apulia to the north and east, and Calabria to the south, having one short southwestern coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea between Campania in the northwest and Calabria in the southwest, and a...
, Campania
Campania
Campania is a region in southern Italy. The region has a population of around 5.8 million people, making it the second-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of 13,590 km² makes it the most densely populated region in the country...
, Abruzzi, and Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
. All dialects are closely related to each other but are not entirely mutually intelligible.
The Arbëresh language retains many archaisms of medieval Albanian from the pre-Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
invasion of Albania in the 15th century. It also retains Greek language
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
elements, including vocabulary and pronunciation. It has also preserved some conservative features that were lost in mainstream Albanian Tosk. For example, it has preserved certain syllable-initial consonant clusters which have been simplified in Standard Albanian (cf. Arbërisht gluhë /ˈɡluxə/ ('language/tongue'), vs. Standard Albanian gjuhë /ˈɟuhə/). It sounds more archaic than Standard Albanian.
Arbërisht was commonly called 'Albanese' (Albanian in the Italian language) in Italy until the 1990s. Until recently, Arbërisht speakers had only very imprecise notions about how related or unrelated their language was to Albanian. Until the 1980s Arbërisht was exclusively a spoken language, except for its written form used in the Italo-Albanian Church
Italo-Greek Catholic Church
The Italo-Greek Catholic Church is one of the 22 Eastern Catholic Churches which, together with the Latin Church, comprise the Catholic Church...
, and Arbëreshë people had no practical affiliation with the Standard Albanian language used in Albania, as they did not use this form in writing or in media. When a large number of immigrants from Albania began to enter Italy in the 1990s and came into contact with local Arbëreshë communities, the differences and similarities were for the first time made known. There are mixed feelings towards the "new Albanians".
Since the 1980s, some efforts have been organized to preserve the cultural and linguistic heritage of the language.
Arbërisht has been under a slow decline in recent decades, but is currently experiencing a revival in many villages in Italy. Figures such as Zef Skirò Di Maxho
Zef Skirò Di Maxho
Giuseppe Schirò Di Maggio , born in 1944, is a Arbëreshë poet and dramatist of Piana degli Albanesi in Sicily.He studied at the Università di Palermo...
have done much work on school books and other language learning tools in the language, producing two books 'Udha e Mbarë' and 'Udhëtimi', both used in schools in the village of Piana degli Albanesi
Piana degli Albanesi
Piana degli Albanesi is a comune with 6,427 inhabitants in the Province of Palermo, Sicily.The town is the most important and populous Arbëreshë community in Sicily and it is the episcopal see of the Byzantine Catholic Church...
.
False friends
While the relation between Arbërisht and Shqip is close, the two are not 100% mutually intelligible and there are many false friends, for example:| Arbërisht | Meaning | Shqip | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| shurbenj | work | shërbej | serve |
| punonj | work in the fields | punoj | work |
| u nëngë jam | I am not | unë jam | I am |
| kopíl | young man | kopil | illegitimate boy |
| brekë | trousers | brekë | underpants |
| brumë | pasta | brumë | dough |
| zienj | cook | ziej | boil |
| fund | anus | fund | end |
Vaccarizzo Albanian
Vaccarizzo AlbanianVaccarizzo Albanian
Vaccarizzo Albanian is a subdialect of the Arbëresh dialect of the Albanian language. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese in southern Italy by approximately 3,000 people Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of the Tosk dialect, on which the...
is a variety of the Arbëresh language. Spoken in the villages of Vaccarizzo Albanese
Vaccarizzo Albanese
Vaccarizzo Albanese is a village and comune in the province of Cosenza in the Calabria region of southern Italy.The town is bordered by Acri, San Cosmo Albanese and San Giorgio Albanese.- Language :...
and San Giorgio Albanese
San Giorgio Albanese
San Giorgio Albanese is a town and comune in the province of Cosenza in the Calabria region of southern Italy.- Language :...
in Calabria
Calabria
Calabria , in antiquity known as Bruttium, is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of the Italian Peninsula. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro....
by approximately 3,000 people. Vaccarizzo Albanian has retained many archaic features of both Gheg and Tosk dialects.
Distinctive features
Some features of Arbërisht distinguish it considerably from standard Albanian. In some cases these are retentions of older pronunciations.Vowels
ËThe letter "Ë" is pronounced as either a schwa
Schwa
In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa can mean the following:*An unstressed and toneless neutral vowel sound in some languages, often but not necessarily a mid-central vowel...
[ə] or as a near-close near-back vowel [ʊ̜]. So the word "Arbëresh" is pronounced either [ɑɾbəˈɾɛʃ] or [ɑɾbʊ̜ˈɾɛʃ] depending on the dialect.
Y to I
Arbërisht lacks the close front rounded vowel
Close front rounded vowel
The close front rounded vowel, or high front rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is y...
[y] of Albanian, which is replaced by the close front unrounded vowel
Close front unrounded vowel
The close front unrounded vowel, or high front unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ....
[i]. For example "ty" ('you') becomes "ti", "hyni" ('enter') becomes "hini".
Consonants
GJThe letter "GJ" is pronounced as a palatalized voiced velar plosive
Voiced velar plosive
The voiced velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is g. Strictly, the IPA symbol is the so-called "opentail G" , though the "looptail G" is...
[ɡʲ] rather than a voiced palatal plosive
Voiced palatal plosive
The voiced palatal plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨⟩, a barred dotless ⟨j⟩ , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is J\.The sound does not exist as a phoneme in English, but is...
[ɟ] as in Albanian. Therefore, the word "gjith" ('all') is pronounced [ɡʲiθ] rather than [ɟiθ].
GL
In some words, Albanian "GJ", Arbëresh has preserved the consonant cluster "GL"; e.g. "glet" not "gjet" ('s/he looks like...').
H
The letter "H" is pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative
Voiceless velar fricative
The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The sound was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English, most notably in Scottish English....
[x] (a sound also found in Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
: "χαρά" [xaˈra], 'joy'). As such, the Albanian word "ha" ('eat') is pronounced [xɑ], not [hɑ] as in Albanian.
HJ
Arbëresh has a palatalized palatalized voiceless velar fricative
Voiceless velar fricative
The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The sound was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English, most notably in Scottish English....
, [xʲ]. Therefore, the word "hjedh" ('throw') is pronounced [xʲɛθ]. The letter combination HJ is present in a few Albanian words (without a voiceless velar fricative), but is not treated as a separate letter of the alphabet as it is in Arbëresh.
LL
The letter "LL" is pronounced as a voiced velar fricative
Voiced velar fricative
The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in various spoken languages. It is not found in English today, but did exist in Old English...
[ɣ] (also found in Greek: "γάλα" [ˈɣala], 'milk'). As such, the Albanian word "llah" ('to eat until stuffed') is pronounced [ɣɑx], not [ɫɑh] as in Albanian.
Q
The letter "Q" is pronounced as a palatalized voiceless velar plosive
Voiceless velar plosive
The voiceless velar stop or voiceless velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is k....
[kʲ] rather than a voiceless palatal plosive
Voiceless palatal plosive
The voiceless palatal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is c....
[c] as in Albanian. Therefore, the word "qiell" ('heaven') is pronounced [kʲiɛx] rather than [ciɛɫ] and the word "shqip" ('eagle') is pronounced [ʃkʲɪp].
KL
Arbërisht has preserved the consonant cluster "KL" e.g. "klumësht" not "qumësht" ('milk') or "klisha" instead of "qisha" ('church').
Pronunciation of final consonants
In contrast with standard AlbanianAlbanian language
Albanian is an Indo-European language spoken by approximately 7.6 million people, primarily in Albania and Kosovo but also in other areas of the Balkans in which there is an Albanian population, including western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, southern Serbia and northwestern Greece...
Arbëresh has retained an archaic sysytem of pronouncing consonants in their final positions. The consonants that change when in final position or before another consonant are: b, d, dh, g, gj, ll, v, x, xh, z, zh.
B
devoices to P: e.g. 'thelb' (clove) - 'thelp.'
D
devoices to T: e.g. 'vend' (place) - 'vent.'
DH
devoices to TH: e.g. 'zgledh' (read) - 'zgleth.'
G
devoices to K: e.g. 'lig' (bad) - 'lik.'
GJ
devoices to Q: 'zogj' (chicks) - 'zoq.'
J
voices to HJ: 'vaj' (oil) - 'vahj.'
LL
devoices to H: 'uthull' (vinegar) - 'uthuh.'
X
devoices to C: 'ndanx' (near) - 'ndanc.'
Z
devoices to S: 'loz' (dance) - 'los.'
ZH
devoices to SH: 'gozhda' (pin) - 'goshda.'
Pronunciation of G
The letter G is usually pronounced as a voiced velar fricativeVoiced velar fricative
The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in various spoken languages. It is not found in English today, but did exist in Old English...
[ɣ] as in the pronunciation of the Arbëresh letter 'll', this sound is often represented by the letters 'GH' in the Arbëresh orthography.
For example:
Ghajdhur/Gajdhur (donkey)
is pronounced (ɣajður)
Grish (invite)
is pronounced (ɣriʃ)
Morphology
In Arbëresh the first person present indicative (e.g. "I work") is marked by the word ending in "NJ", whereas in Albanian this is normally marked by "J". So, 'I live' is "rrónj" in Arbëresh and "rroj" in Albanian.Stress
Stress in Arbëresh is usually on the penultimate syllable, as in ItalianItalian language
Italian is a Romance language spoken mainly in Europe: Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City, by minorities in Malta, Monaco, Croatia, Slovenia, France, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia, and by immigrant communities in the Americas and Australia...
.
Non-Albanian Vocabulary
Many Arbëresh words appear to be cognateCognate
In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus . Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are usually not meant by the term, e.g...
with their corresponding Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
words that have either been lost in standard Albanian or are a result of Greek influence on the Arbëresh language via the Byzantine church or their proximity to Greek-speaking populations in their original villages in Albania.
Examples:
- haristís [xaɾiˈstis] ('thank') shared with Greek "εὐχαριστῶ" [e̞fˌxariˈsto̞] ('thank you').
- parkalés [paɾkaˈlɛs] ('I plead', 'please') shared with Greek "παρακαλώ" [paˌrakaˈlo̞] ('please').
- hórë [xɔˈɾə] ('village') shared with Greek "χωρα" (ChoraChoraChora can mean one of several things:Localities* Chora District in the Uruzgan province of Afghanistan* Chora , a district in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia* The Chora Church, a Byzantine church in Istanbul...
: land, main village). - amáhj [aˈmaxʲ] ('war') shared with Greek "μάχη" [maˈxi] ('battle')."
Alongside the Greek component in Arbëresh, there is a considerable vocabulary derived from Sicilian
Sicilian language
Sicilian is a Romance language. Its dialects make up the Extreme-Southern Italian language group, which are spoken on the island of Sicily and its satellite islands; in southern and central Calabria ; in the southern parts of Apulia, the Salento ; and Campania, on the Italian mainland, where it is...
and other southern italian dialacts. Many of these words have retained their original meanings where Sicilian has given way to Italian in everyday speech amongst the non-Arbëresh Sicilian people.
Examples:
- rritrenjët ('toilets'), this derives from an apparently French word introduced to Sicilian via the Normans and is retained in Arbëresh and not in modern Sicilian.
- rritëratë ('photograph'), this derives from the Sicilian word for picture and is more common in Arbëresh than in modern Sicilian.
- ghranët ('money'), this derives from the Sicilian word 'granni', meaning 'money' in Sicilian but not in Italian. It is still used in some contexts by modern Sicilian speakers as well as in all situations in Arbëresh. The original Arbëresh word for money was 'haromë' of unknown origin and no longer used.
- qaca ('square'), this comes from the Sicilian word 'Chiazza' which is used in all Arbëresh dialects as well as Sicilian. The Albanian word 'Sheshi' which means 'square' in standard Albanian means of 'plateau' in Arbëresh.
There is divided opinion amongst the Arbëresh people regarding the supposed purity of the Arbëresh language, some seek to purify it of its Sicilian or other non-Albanian elements, whilst others consider this element to be authentic and representative of actual spoken Arbëresh as a living language and not a 16th century relic of old Albanian, much in the same way as the Sicilian element is authentic to the Maltese language.
Grammar of Non-Albanian Verbs
Alongside the Sicilian vocabulary element in Arbëresh, the language also includes grammatical rules for the inclusion of Sicilian-derived verbs in Arbëresh.Examples:
- pincar ('think'); derived from the Sicilian 'pinzari'. Which conjugates in the present tense as follows:
- U pincar = I think
- Ti pincar = You think
- Ai/Ajo pincar = He/She thinks
- Na pincarjëm = We think
- Ata/Ato pincarjën = They think
- Ju pincarni = You (pl) think
In the past tense this conjugates as follows:
- U pincarta = I thought
- Ti pincarte = You thought
- Ai/Ajo pincarti = He/She thought
- Na pircartëm = We thought
- Ata/Ato pincartën = They thought
- Ju pincartët = You (pl.) thought
Comparison with other forms of Albanian
There are many instances in which Arberisht differs greatly from Standard Albanian, for instance:| Arbërisht | Shqip | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Vjen më rarë or vjen më thënë | do të thotë or do me thënë | It means |
| Bëjëm të shkonj or mënd e më shkosh | më le të kaloj | Let me pass |
| Shkòmë musturin | më jep piperin | Pass me the pepper |
| Zotërote ë një zot? | Zotrote jeni një prift? | Are you a priest? |
| E ghrish zotërisë satë pë' një pasijatë | ju ftoj për një shëtitje | I invite you for a stroll |
| Zglith mirë | lexoni mirë | Read well |
| Qëroi isht burinë i lig | moti është shumë keq | The weather is very bad |
| Rri Sëndastinë | jetoj në Sëndastinë | I live in Santa Cristina |
| Ka bëjëm të ngrënit | do të bëjmë gatuar ushqimi | We will prepare the food |
| U ka jecur deri qaca | unë kam ecur deri sheshi | I have walked to the square |
| Ghajdhuri isht ghrishur ndë horën | gomari është ftuar në fshatin | The donkey is invited into the village |
| Nani jam e vete ngulem/flë | tani unë do të fle | I'm going to sleep now |
| Lyp ndjesë se zgarrarta shumë | më fal se gabova shumë | I'm sorry that I've made so many errors |
| Ajo isht të shoqjën time | ajo është gruaja time | She is my wife |
| Flit tarbrisht | flit shqip | Speak Albanian! |
| I shoqi jim isht ngulur | im shoq është duke fjetur | My husband is sleeping |
| Më përqen rritëratën tënë | më pëlqen fotografijën tonë | I like our photograph |
| Mortatë or motrëmëmë | hallë or tejze | Aunt |
| Lalë or vovi | xhaxha or Lalë (dialect) | Uncle or Older brother |
| Lalëbukuri | Uncle by marriage | |
| Vova | motra e madhe | Older sister |
| Tata | baba or Tata (dialect) | Father |
| Mëmë | mëmë | Mother |
| Mëdhema | edhe | Also |
| Vëllai or Lluai | vëllai | brother |
| Ndrëngonj | Kuptoj | understand |
| Sprasmja | Fundi | end |
| Fundi | Bythi | buttocks |
| Jotëm sempri të thëshjë çë mos hash nga tajuri çë ngë ka klënë pastruam! | Nëna jote gjithmonë thëshjë se mos ha nga pjata që nuk ka qënë pastruar | Your mother always said don't eat from plates that haven't been cleaned! |
| The Lord's Prayer Lord's Prayer The Lord's Prayer is a central prayer in Christianity. In the New Testament of the Christian Bible, it appears in two forms: in the Gospel of Matthew as part of the discourse on ostentation in the Sermon on the Mount, and in the Gospel of Luke, which records Jesus being approached by "one of his... Sicilian Arbëresh (first row) Compared with Standard Tosk Albanian (second row), and Gheg Albanian (third row).
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Grammar Comparison
There are many elements of Arberesh grammar that differ considerably from Albanian, for example:| Arbërisht | Shqip | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| ka shkosh | do kalosh | You will pass (by) |
| flini alluras | folni se shpejt | Speak soon (pl.) |
| flëni | flini | Sleep! (pl.) |
| bëjëm të shkonj | më le të kaloj | Let me pass |
| u ka vajtur | unë kam shkuar | I have gone |
| ti ke gjegjur | ti ke degjuar | You have heard |
| jam e zgledh/djavosëm | unë po lexoj | I am reading |
| zoti zën fill parkalesiën | prifti fillon lutën | The priest starts the prayers |
| ish stisur | ishtë ndërtuar | It was built |
Name
The name Arbërishte is derived from the ethnonym "Albanoi", which in turn comes from the toponym "Arbëria" (Greek: Άρβανα), which in the Middle Ages referred to a region in what is today AlbaniaAlbania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
(Babiniotis 1998). Its native equivalents (Arbërorë, Arbëreshë and others) formerly were the self-designation of Albanians in general. Both "Arbëria" and "Albania/Albanian" go further back to name forms attested since antiquity.
Within the Arbëresh communit the language is often referred to as "Tarbrisht" or "Gjegje." It is not known why the term "gjegje" is used, however, this does mean "listen" in Arbërisht.
Arbëresh Names
Every Arbëresh person is given a legal Italian name and also a name in Arbërisht. Quite often the Arbëresh name is merely a translation of the Italian name. Arbëresh surnames are also used amongst villagers but do not carry any legal weight; the Arbëresh surname is called an "ofiqe" in Arbërisht. Some Arberesh 'ofiqe' are 'Butijuni', 'Pafundi' (literally 'without anus'), 'Skarpari' (shoemaker from Italian word 'scarpa'), 'Mutjari' etc.Examples of Italian names and their Arbëresh equivalents:
| Italian | Arbëresh |
|---|---|
| Giuseppe | Zef |
| Marco | Marku |
| Luca | Lekë |
| Gabriele | Bjelli |
| Francesco | Nxhiku |
| Nicola | Koll |
| Angela | Nxholliqe |
| Alessandro | Lishëndri |
| Mario | Marjucë |
| Maria | Marieja |
| Gaetano | Tani |
| Eleuterio | Lëfteri |
| Antonio | Ndon |
| Gaspare | Ghaspani |
| Domenica | Mima |
| Lorenzo | Lloreu |
| Giovanni | Janj, Xhuan |
| Demetrio | Mitri |
| Spiridione | Dhoni |
| Rosalia | Sallja |
| Tommaso | Masinë |
| Cosimo | Gësmëni |
| Saverio | Shaverë |
| Andrea | Ndrica |
Classification
Italo-Arbërisht is descended from ArvanitikaArvanitika
Arvanitika also known Arvanitic is the variety of Albanian traditionally spoken by the Arvanites, a population group in Greece...
, which is the eldest sub-dialect of Arbërisht, part of the Tosk dialect group of Albanian. It was to Thesprotia, which is today northern Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
, Tzameria and Epirus
Epirus
The name Epirus, from the Greek "Ήπειρος" meaning continent may refer to:-Geographical:* Epirus - a historical and geographical region of the southwestern Balkans, straddling modern Greece and Albania...
, and subsequently taken to Italy from there. Italo-Arbërisht has retained some words identical to Greek words dhrom 'road', from δρόμος; Ne 'yes', from ναι, in the village of Greci
Greci
-Places:Italy*Greci, Campania, a comune in the Province of Avellino* Greci, Puglia, a comune in the Province of FoggiaRomania*Greci, Mehedinţi, a commune in Mehedinţi County*Greci, Tulcea, a commune in Tulcea County* Greci, a village in Petreşti, Dâmboviţa...
. Italo-Arbërisht and Greco-Arbërisht
Arvanitika
Arvanitika also known Arvanitic is the variety of Albanian traditionally spoken by the Arvanites, a population group in Greece...
have a mutually intelligible vocabulary base, the unintelligible elements of the two dialects stem from the usage of Italian or Greek modernisms in the absence of native ones.
Spoken Arbërisht is internally richly diversified into sub-dialects, and no further standardization towards a common (spoken or written) Standard Arbërisht has taken place. At the same time, Arbërisht speakers do not use Standard Albanian as their standard language either, as they are generally not literate in the standard Albanian orthography, and are not reported to use spoken-language media in Standard Albanian. In this sense, then, Arbërisht is not functionally subordinated to Standard Albanian as a dachsprache ("roof language"), in the way dialects of a national language within the same country usually are.
Writing system
The language is not usually written outside of the church and a few highly educated families, but officials are now using the standard Albanian alphabetAlbanian alphabet
The modern Albanian alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, and consists of 36 letters:Note: The vowels are shown in bold. to the pronunciation of the letters.-History:...
, which is used on street signs in the villages as well as taught in schools.
Pronouns
| Personal pronouns | Possessive pronouns | |||
| 1Sg. | u | I | jim | mine |
| 2Sg. | ti | you | jytë | yours |
| 3Sg.m. | aji | he | i/e tíj | his |
| 3Sg.f. | ajo | she | i/e saj | hers |
| 1Pl. | na | we | jynë | ours |
| 2Pl. | ju | you | juaj | yours |
| 3Pl.m. | ata | they (m.) | atyre | theirs (m.) |
| 3Pl.f. | ato | they (f.) | atyre | theirs (f.) |
Verbs
Arberesh verbs often differ, somewhat drastically, from their Standard Albanian counterparts.| Personal moods | ||||||||
| Mood | Tense | Number and person | English equivalent (only sg. 1st) |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | |||||||
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st | 2nd | 3rd | |||
| Indicative | Pluperfect | kisha burë | kishe burë | kishë burë | kishëm burë | kishni burë | kishin burë | I had done |
| Imperfect | ish'e buja (she buja) | ish'e buje (she buje) | ish'e bun (she bun) | ishm'e bujëm | ishn'e buni | ishn'e bujën | I was doing | |
| Compound perfect | bura | bure | burë | burëm | burën | burën | I did | |
| Simple perfect | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | ka burë | I have done | |
| Present | bunj | bun | bun | bujëm | buni | bujën | I do, I am doing | |
| Future | ka bunj | ka bun | ka bun | ka bujëm | ka buni | ka bujën | I will do | |
| Future (popular, 1) | am să fac | ai să faci | are să facă | avem să facem | aveţi să faceţi | au să facă | I'll do | |
| Present | să fac | să faci | să facă | să facem | să faceţi | să facă | that I do, to do | |
| Imperative | Present | – | buje! | – | – | buni! | – | do! (2nd person only) |
| Non-personal moods | |||
| Mood | Tense | Verb forms | English equivalent |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present | të bunj | to do | |
| Gerund | – | jam e bunj | doing |
| The verb HAVE | The verb BE | |||||||
| Pres. | Imperf. | Subj.Impf. | Subj.Perf. | Pres. | Imperf. | Subj.Impf. | Subj.Perf. | |
| 1Sg. | kam | keshë | të kem | të keshë | jam | jeshë | të jem | të jeshë |
| 2Sg. | ke | keshe | të kesh | të keshe | je | jeshe | të jesh | të jëshe |
| 3Sg. | ka | kish | të ket | të kish | ishtë, është | ish | të jet | të ish |
| 1Pl. | kemi | keshëm | të kemi | te keshëm | jemi | jeshëm | të jeshëm | të jeshëm |
| 2Pl. | kini | keshëtë | të kini | te keshëtë | jini | jeshëtë | të jeshëtë | të jeshëtë |
| 3Pl, | kanë | kishnë | të kenë | të kishnë | janë | ishnë | të jenë | të ishnë |
Some common phrases
| Falem | Hello. |
| Çë bën? Si rri? | What are you doing? How are you? |
| Jam shumë mirë | I am very well |
| Zotërote e haristis, jini mirë? | Thank you, and are you well? |
| O, jam mëdhema mirë? | Yes, I'm fine too. |
| Zotërote flini arbërisht? | Do you speak Arbërisht? |
| Ka vjen? | Where are you from? |
| Jam gjymsë arbëresh | I'm half Arbëresh |
| Mëma jime isht Lëtire | My mother is Italian |
| Ju parkales | Please |
| Gëzonem të ju njoh | Pleased to meet you |
| Mirë menatë | Good morning |
| Shihemi | See you soon |
| Gjegjemi alluras | We'll speak soon |
| Si thërritet? | What's your name? |
| Mua më thonë Marieja | My name is Maria |
| Ëj | Yes |
| Ara/ëj | Yes (Santa Cristina Gela) |
| O/oraëj | Yes (Contessa Entellina) |
| Jo | No |
Sample text
Shërbesa e Kurorës - The Arbëresh Marriage CeremonyZoti : Gjergj, do ti të marrëshë për grua Lina çë ke këtú te ana, si urdhuron Klisha Shejte, e të qëndrosh lidhur me atë në të mirën si edhé në të ligën gjithë ditët e gjellës tënde?
Priest: Do you Gjergj want to take as your legitimate wife Lina who is present here according to the instructions of the Holy Church and to be faithful through the good and the bad all of your life?
Dhëndërri: O, e dua!
Groom: Yes, I do want that!
Zoti: Bekuar kloft Perëndia jínë ka herë, naní e për gjithëmonë e për jetë të jetëvet.
Priest: blessed be our God for all time, now and always in the centuries of centuries.
Populli: Amín.
People: Amen.
Zoti: Në paqe parkalesjëm t'ën Zonë.
Priest: In peace we pray to the Lord.
Populli: Lipisí, o i Madh'yn'Zot.
People: Our Great God, we beseech you.
Bekimi të unazavet
Zoti: Me këtë unazë shërbëtori i Perëndis Gjergj lidhet me shërbëtorën e Perëndis Lina në embër të Atit, të Birit e të Shpirtit Shejt.
Priest: The servant of God Gjergj is tied to the servant of God Lina, in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Zoti jepë krinjët e këndon Msalmin 127:
Të limë atá çë i trëmben t'ynë Zoti e çë jecjën te udhët e Tij.
the priest delivers the candles and intones Psalm 127
Make happy those who fear the Lord and may they walk in His ways.
Lëvdi tij, o i madh'yn'Zot, lëvdi tij. Dhóksa si, o Theós imón, dhóksa si
Glory to you, our God, glory to you.
Se ti ka hashë bukën e shërbëtyrës s'duarvet tote. Lumë ti e fatbardhë ka jeshë. Jotë shoqe ka jet si dhri me pemë te muret e shpis tënde. Bijët tatë si degë ullinjësh rrethë triesës tënde. Shi këstú ka jet bekuar njeriu çë ka trëmbësirën e Perëndisë.
That you will eat the bread of the work of your hands. You will be happy and enjoy all that is good.
See your wife as a fertile vine in the intimacy of your home.
That your daughters will be like olive branches around your table.
That those who fear the Lord will be blessed.