Architecture of Luxembourg
Encyclopedia
The architecture of Luxembourg
probably extends back to the Treveri
, a Celtic tribe who prospered in the 1st century BC. A few ruins remain from the Roman occupation but the most significant contributions over the centuries have been the country's castles and churches. Today there is a veritable architectural boom as Luxembourg's economic prosperity provides a basis for developments in the financial, EU and cultural sectors with a number of world-class buildings.
, a prosperous Celtic tribe, developed an oppidum
on Titelberg
in the south-western corner of the country. The Romans
, who occupied the area from 53 BC until the middle of the 5th century, are responsible for the remains of a number of villas across the country, especially in Echternach
, Mamer
and Goeblange
. The Echternach site covers a huge area (118 by 62 metres) where there was a luxurious mansion from about 70 AD with 40 (later 60) rooms. It had thermal baths, a water heating system as well as additional buildings serving the surrounding farming community.
, was built between the 11th and 13th centuries on the site of a Gallo-Roman castellum
. Initially designed as a fort, a square tower, a kitchen, a chapel and living rooms were added around 1100. During the 12th century, a new tower containing living quarters was built together with a prestigious new decagonal chapel. So as to impress the House of Luxembourg, the counts of Vianden constructed a new two-storey palace measuring 10 by 13 metres at the beginning of the 13th century, attaching it to the chapel by means of a magnificent gallery. The final alterations took place in the middle of the 13th century when the Gothic style
was introduced throughout the building.
Luxembourg has many other medieval castles, most of them now in ruins. Some of the more interesting ones are listed below.
Luxembourg also has a number of architecturally interesting churches. The Abbey of Echternach
(700) is the oldest Anglo-Saxon monastery in continental Europe. After the original buildings had burnt down in 1017, a new abbey was built. The church was originally Romanesque
in style, but there were Gothic
additions in the 14th and 16th centuries.
, connecting the old town centre or Ville Haute
to the more recent Gare
district to the south, was completed by French architect Paul Séjourné in 1902. The bridge consists of a large central arch flanked by smaller arches on either side. With a span of 84.65 m (277.72 ft), the central arch was the largest of its day. The bridge is currently being widened to accommodate a new tram line. The design of Walnut Lane Bridge
in Philadelphia was copied from the Adolph Bridge.
The Passerelle, designed by Edouard Grenier and Auguste Letellier, was completed in 1861. The bridge is 290 m (951 ft) long, with 24 arches, and rises 45 m (148 ft) above the Pétrusse
valley floor. It connects the city center with the railway station to the south.
The Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge
, completed in 1965, was designed by the German architect Egon Jux
. Carrying road traffic on three lanes in each direction, it connects the city centre with European Institutions and the financial district on the Kirchberg Plateau
. It towers above the little bridge known as de Béinchen (1786) which forms part of Vauban's fortifications.
The two-storey Pont du château (Castle Bridge), built of sandstone by the Austrians in 1735, replaces an old drawbridge between the cliffs of the Bock
. It provides access to the eastern end of the old town up the hill from Clausen. In addition to the roadway at the top, it also has three other means of crossing: one across the four upper arches, one through a spiral staircase inside the lower arch and one under Sosthène Weis, the street below, through a passage leading to the casemate
s.
in 1994 and European Capital of Culture
in 1995. This process was manifest in the architectural debate around the design of the new National Museum of History and Art
by Christian Bauer et Associés, opened in 2002. International design competitions
also contributed to this process, attracting notable architects like Dominique Perrault
, winner of the 1996 competition for a major extension of the Court of Justice of the European Union
and Bolles+Wilson, winners of the 2003 design competition for the National Library of Luxembourg
.
There are severl other fine examples of modern architecture in Luxembourg. These include:
Luxembourg
Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south...
probably extends back to the Treveri
Treveri
The Treveri or Treviri were a tribe of Gauls who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle from around 150 BCE, at the latest, until their eventual absorption into the Franks...
, a Celtic tribe who prospered in the 1st century BC. A few ruins remain from the Roman occupation but the most significant contributions over the centuries have been the country's castles and churches. Today there is a veritable architectural boom as Luxembourg's economic prosperity provides a basis for developments in the financial, EU and cultural sectors with a number of world-class buildings.
The beginnings
The architecture of Luxembourg appears to have its origins in the 1st or 2nd century BC when the TreveriTreveri
The Treveri or Treviri were a tribe of Gauls who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle from around 150 BCE, at the latest, until their eventual absorption into the Franks...
, a prosperous Celtic tribe, developed an oppidum
Oppidum
Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, "enclosed space," possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, "occupied space" or "footprint."Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age...
on Titelberg
Titelberg
Titelberg is the site of a large Celtic settlement or oppidum in the extreme south west of Luxembourg. In the 1st century BC, this thriving community was probably the capital of the Treveri people...
in the south-western corner of the country. The Romans
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
, who occupied the area from 53 BC until the middle of the 5th century, are responsible for the remains of a number of villas across the country, especially in Echternach
Echternach
Echternach is a commune with city status in the canton of Echternach, which is part of the district of Grevenmacher, in eastern Luxembourg. Echternach lies near the border with Germany, and is the oldest town in Luxembourg....
, Mamer
Mamer
Mamer is a commune and town in south-western Luxembourg. It is located west of Luxembourg City. The commune includes the town of Mamer, and also the smaller communities of Capellen and Holzem. Mamer is situated on the river Mamer, a tributary of the Alzette...
and Goeblange
Goeblange
Goeblange is a village in the commune of Koerich, in southern Luxembourg about 13 km west of Luxembourg City. , the village has a population of 425.-Location:...
. The Echternach site covers a huge area (118 by 62 metres) where there was a luxurious mansion from about 70 AD with 40 (later 60) rooms. It had thermal baths, a water heating system as well as additional buildings serving the surrounding farming community.
Castles
One of the country's most famous monuments, the imposing Castle of ViandenVianden Castle
Vianden Castle , located in Vianden in the north of Luxembourg, is one of the largest fortified castles west of the Rhine. With origins dating from the 10th century, the castle was built in the Romanesque style from the 11th to 14th centuries. Gothic transformations and trimmings were added at the...
, was built between the 11th and 13th centuries on the site of a Gallo-Roman castellum
Castellum
A castellum is a small Roman detached fort or fortlet used as a watch tower or signal station. The Latin word castellum is a diminutive of castra , which in turn is the plural of castrum ; it is the source of the English word "castle".The term castellum was also used to refer to a settling or...
. Initially designed as a fort, a square tower, a kitchen, a chapel and living rooms were added around 1100. During the 12th century, a new tower containing living quarters was built together with a prestigious new decagonal chapel. So as to impress the House of Luxembourg, the counts of Vianden constructed a new two-storey palace measuring 10 by 13 metres at the beginning of the 13th century, attaching it to the chapel by means of a magnificent gallery. The final alterations took place in the middle of the 13th century when the Gothic style
Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture....
was introduced throughout the building.
Luxembourg has many other medieval castles, most of them now in ruins. Some of the more interesting ones are listed below.
- Bourscheid CastleBourscheid CastleBourscheid Castle is located near the village of Bourscheid in north-eastern Luxembourg. The medieval castle stands on a site with archeological evidence of structures dating back to Roman times...
has its origins in the 11th century, when it consisted of a tower building linked to a chapel. The long surrounding wall with its watchtowers was completed in 1384 together with the Stolzembourg House, a separate residential building designed for the masters of Bourscheid. The body of the castle was also raised to a height of 10 metres, housing four storeys complete with a large fireplace and chimney.
- Beaufort Castle, LuxembourgBeaufort Castle, LuxembourgBeaufort Castle dating from the 11th century consists of the ruins of the medieval fortress and an adjacent Renaissance château. It is located in Beaufort in eastern Luxembourg.-History:...
, in the east of Luxembourg not far from EchternachEchternachEchternach is a commune with city status in the canton of Echternach, which is part of the district of Grevenmacher, in eastern Luxembourg. Echternach lies near the border with Germany, and is the oldest town in Luxembourg....
, can be traced back to the 12th century. A number of additions were made over the centuries. In the 17th century, when the site came under new ownership, a second castle was built in the RenaissanceRenaissance architectureRenaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance...
style with the result that the older castle slowly fell into ruin.
- Clervaux CastleClervaux CastleClervaux Castle in the town of Clervaux in northern Luxembourg dates back to the 12th century. Destroyed by fire in the Second World War during the Battle of the Bulge, the castle has now been fully rebuilt...
also has its origins in the 12th century but was substantially extended by the Counts of Clervaux in the 15th and 16th centuries. Today the interior has been completely refitted for the needs of the municipal administration.
- Hollenfels CastleHollenfels CastleHollenfels Castle , with a history dating back to the 11th century, is one of the castles located close to the River Eisch in the so-called Valley of the Seven Castles in central Luxembourg...
, first mentioned in 1129, acquired its massive keep in the 14th century. The mansion to the north-east was constructed in 1729.
Churches
Abbey of Echternach
The Abbey of Echternach is a Benedictine monastery in the town of Echternach, in eastern Luxembourg. The Abbey was founded by St Willibrord, the patron saint of Luxembourg, in the seventh century...
(700) is the oldest Anglo-Saxon monastery in continental Europe. After the original buildings had burnt down in 1017, a new abbey was built. The church was originally Romanesque
Romanesque architecture
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of Medieval Europe characterised by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque architecture, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style,...
in style, but there were Gothic
Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture....
additions in the 14th and 16th centuries.
- One of the best preserved Romanesque churches in Luxembourg is the chapel in Vianden Castle.
- The origins of St. Lawrence's church in DiekirchDiekirchDiekirch is a commune with city status in north-eastern Luxembourg, capital city of the canton Diekirch and the district of Diekirch. The city is situated on the banks of the Sauer river....
can be traced back to the 6th century but the present building consists of a 12th century Romanesque tower and the Gothic 15th century church.
- St Michael's ChurchSaint Michael's Church, LuxembourgSaint Michael's Church is a Roman Catholic church in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is located in Fishmarket, in the central Ville Haute quarter....
in the centre of Luxembourg City was rebuilt in 1688 in the Romanesque and BaroqueBaroque architectureBaroque architecture is a term used to describe the building style of the Baroque era, begun in late sixteenth century Italy, that took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion, often to express the triumph of the Catholic Church and...
styles.
- The Romano-GothicRomano-GothicThe Romano-Gothic is an architectural style, also called Early Gothic, which evolved in Europe in the 12th century from the Romanesque style. It is characterized by rounded and pointed arches on a vertical plane. Flying buttresses were used, but are mainly undecorated. Romanesque buttresses were...
church in the village of Holler in the north of Luxembourg dates back to the 12th century. Of particular interest are the church's high Gothic arches and palm vaulting as well as its 14th century frescoFrescoFresco is any of several related mural painting types, executed on plaster on walls or ceilings. The word fresco comes from the Greek word affresca which derives from the Latin word for "fresh". Frescoes first developed in the ancient world and continued to be popular through the Renaissance...
s.
- The MunshausenMunshausenMunshausen is a commune and village in northern Luxembourg, in the canton of Clervaux., the village of Munshausen, which lies in the centre of the commune, has a population of 172, while the commune of Munshausen has a population of 1,034...
church tower from 1250 is in the Romanesque style while the nave underwent Gothic additions around 1470.
- The church at SeptfontainesSeptfontainesSeptfontaines is a commune and small town in western Luxembourg. It is part of the canton of Capellen, which is part of the district of Luxembourg. , the town of Septfontaines, which lies in the centre of the commune, has a population of 356...
in the south-west of Luxembourg has a Romanesque tower which is probably from an older building, most of which was rebuilt in the early 14th century and consecrated in 1317. The remains of wooden beams indicate that there was originally a wooden ceiling over the nave. This was replaced by late Gothic vaulting in 1516.
Bridges
Luxembourg City has several distinctive bridges. The Adolphe BridgeAdolphe Bridge
Adolphe Bridge is an arch bridge in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The bridge takes road traffic across the Pétrusse, connecting Boulevard Royal, in Ville Haute, to Avenue de la Liberté, in Gare...
, connecting the old town centre or Ville Haute
Ville Haute
Ville Haute is a quarter in central Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg.In 2001, the quarter had a population of 2,686 people.It is the historical center of Luxembourg City and is involved in its UNESCO World Heritage Site status....
to the more recent Gare
Garé
- External links :*...
district to the south, was completed by French architect Paul Séjourné in 1902. The bridge consists of a large central arch flanked by smaller arches on either side. With a span of 84.65 m (277.72 ft), the central arch was the largest of its day. The bridge is currently being widened to accommodate a new tram line. The design of Walnut Lane Bridge
Walnut Lane Bridge
The Walnut Lane Bridge is a concrete arch bridge located in Northwest Philadelphia that connects the Germantown and Roxborough neighborhoods across the Wissahickon Creek in Fairmount Park. While drivers may cross the bridge too quickly to notice, the view from underneath the bridge has inspired...
in Philadelphia was copied from the Adolph Bridge.
The Passerelle, designed by Edouard Grenier and Auguste Letellier, was completed in 1861. The bridge is 290 m (951 ft) long, with 24 arches, and rises 45 m (148 ft) above the Pétrusse
Pétrusse
The Pétrusse is a river flowing through Luxembourg, joining the Alzette at Luxembourg City. It flows through the town of Hollerich....
valley floor. It connects the city center with the railway station to the south.
The Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge
Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge
The Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge is a road bridge in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg.It carries the N51 across the Alzette, connecting the Avenue John Fitzgerald Kennedy, in Kirchberg, to Boulevard Robert Schuman, in Limpertsberg...
, completed in 1965, was designed by the German architect Egon Jux
Egon Jux
Egon Jux was a German architect. He is best known for the Grand Duchess Charlotte Bridge, Luxembourg and Köhlbrandbrücke, Hamburg.Jux was a student of the French architect Le Corbusier.-References:...
. Carrying road traffic on three lanes in each direction, it connects the city centre with European Institutions and the financial district on the Kirchberg Plateau
Kirchberg, Luxembourg
Kirchberg or the Kirchberg is a quarter in north-eastern Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It consists of a plateau situated to the north-east of the city centre, Ville Haute....
. It towers above the little bridge known as de Béinchen (1786) which forms part of Vauban's fortifications.
The two-storey Pont du château (Castle Bridge), built of sandstone by the Austrians in 1735, replaces an old drawbridge between the cliffs of the Bock
Bock (Luxembourg)
The Bock is a promontory in the north-eastern corner of Luxembourg City's old historical district. Offering a natural fortification, its rocky cliffs tower above the River Alzette which surrounds it on three sides. It was here that Count Siegfried built his Castle of Lucilinburhuc in 963,...
. It provides access to the eastern end of the old town up the hill from Clausen. In addition to the roadway at the top, it also has three other means of crossing: one across the four upper arches, one through a spiral staircase inside the lower arch and one under Sosthène Weis, the street below, through a passage leading to the casemate
Casemate
A casemate, sometimes rendered casement, is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired. originally a vaulted chamber in a fortress.-Origin of the term:...
s.
Other buildings of note
There are a number of other buildings of architectural interest in the city of Luxembourg.- The Grand-Ducal PalaceGrand Ducal Palace, LuxembourgThe Grand Ducal Palace is a palace in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is the official residence of the Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and where he performs most of his duties as head of state of the Grand Duchy.-History:...
was originally built as LuxembourgLuxembourg (city)The city of Luxembourg , also known as Luxembourg City , is a commune with city status, and the capital of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. It is located at the confluence of the Alzette and Pétrusse Rivers in southern Luxembourg...
's city hall in 1573. Count Pierre Ernest de Mansfeld, the governor, was probably involved in the design. After serious damage during the siege by VaubanVaubanSébastien Le Prestre, Seigneur de Vauban and later Marquis de Vauban , commonly referred to as Vauban, was a Marshal of France and the foremost military engineer of his age, famed for his skill in both designing fortifications and breaking through them...
, major repairs were carried out in the first half of the 18th century.
- Fort ThüngenFort ThüngenFort Thüngen is a historic fortification in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is sited in Dräi Eechelen Park, in the Kirchberg quarter, in the north-east of the city...
located next to the Museum of Modern ArtMudamThe Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art , abbreviated to Mudam, is a museum of modern art in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The museum stands on the site of the old Fort Thüngen, in the Kirchberg quarter, in the north-east of the city....
in Luxembourg City was built by the Austrian engineer Simon de Beauffe in 1733. It was extended by the Prussians in 1837 and 1860 but was destroyed in 1874. It has now been restored.
- Neumünster AbbeyNeumünster AbbeyNeumünster Abbey is a public meeting place and cultural centre, located in the Grund district of Luxembourg City in southern Luxembourg. After the original Benedictine Abbey on the Altmünster Plateau had been destroyed in 1542, the monks built a new abbey or Neumünster in 1606 in the Grund...
in the Grund districtGrund, LuxembourgGrund is a quarter in central Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is located in the valley below the centre of Luxembourg City on the banks of the Alzette River and, in addition to being a picturesque area, is a popular nightlife precinct which can be accessed by foot or via a lift which...
of Luxembourg City was constructed by the BenedictineBenedictineBenedictine refers to the spirituality and consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century for the cenobitic communities he founded in central Italy. The most notable of these is Monte Cassino, the first monastery founded by Benedict...
monks in 1688 and extended in 1720. It has now been fully restored and is open to the public.
- The Cercle MunicipalCercle MunicipalThe Cercle Municipal or Cercle-Cité is a building in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg, It is located at the eastern end of the Place d'Armes, in the historic central Ville Haute quarter of the city.-History:...
on the Place d'Armes in the centre of Luxembourg City was built at the beginning of the 20th century as an administrative centre with reception rooms. It is now used for hosting concerts and other cultural events.
- The Hôtel de la Caisse d'EpargneBanque et Caisse d'Épargne de l'ÉtatIn Luxemburgish Spuerkeess, in French Banque et Caisse d'Épargne de l'État , is a Luxembourgish bank, established and owned by the Luxembourgish government...
, the headquarters of the Luxembourg savings bank, was constructed in the centre of Luxembourg City on the Place de Metz in 1909. The architect of the Neo-RenaissanceNeo-RenaissanceRenaissance Revival is an all-encompassing designation that covers many 19th century architectural revival styles which were neither Grecian nor Gothic but which instead drew inspiration from a wide range of classicizing Italian modes...
building was the Luxembourger Jean-Pierre Koenig.
Contemporary developments
The 1990s were characterised by a progressive internationalization of Luxemburg's art scene, marked by the designation of the City of Luxemburg as World Heritage SiteWorld Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
in 1994 and European Capital of Culture
European Capital of Culture
The European Capital of Culture is a city designated by theEuropean Union for a period of one calendar year during which it organises a series of cultural events with a strong European dimension....
in 1995. This process was manifest in the architectural debate around the design of the new National Museum of History and Art
National Museum of History and Art
The National Museum of History and Art , abbreviated to MNHA, is a museum located in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. It is dedicated to displaying artworks and artefacts from all epochs of Luxembourgian history...
by Christian Bauer et Associés, opened in 2002. International design competitions
Architectural design competition
An architectural design competition is a special type of competition in which an organization or government body that plans to build a new building asks for architects to submit a proposed design for a building. The winning design is usually chosen by an independent panel of design professionals...
also contributed to this process, attracting notable architects like Dominique Perrault
Dominique Perrault
Dominique Perrault is a French architect. He became world known for the design of the French National Library, distinguished with the Mies van der Rohe Prize in 1996....
, winner of the 1996 competition for a major extension of the Court of Justice of the European Union
Court of Justice of the European Union
The Court of Justice of the European Union is the institution of the European Union which encompasses the whole judiciary. Seated in Luxembourg, it has three sub-courts; the European Court of Justice, the General Court and the Civil Service Tribunal.The institution was originally established in...
and Bolles+Wilson, winners of the 2003 design competition for the National Library of Luxembourg
National Library of Luxembourg
The Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg is the legal deposit and copyright library for Luxembourg. It was established in 1899 in place of the municipal library which dated from 1798. It has currently 750,000 books and 3500 periodicals.-Further reading :* La Bibliothèque nationale de Luxembourg....
.
There are severl other fine examples of modern architecture in Luxembourg. These include:
- The Museum of Modern ArtMudamThe Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art , abbreviated to Mudam, is a museum of modern art in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The museum stands on the site of the old Fort Thüngen, in the Kirchberg quarter, in the north-east of the city....
(2006) designed by the Chinese-American architect I. M. PeiI. M. PeiIeoh Ming Pei , commonly known as I. M. Pei, is a Chinese American architect, often called a master of modern architecture. Born in Canton, China and raised in Hong Kong and Shanghai, Pei drew inspiration at an early age from the gardens at Suzhou...
who was responsible for the famous glass pyramid as part of his renovation of the LouvreLouvreThe Musée du Louvre – in English, the Louvre Museum or simply the Louvre – is one of the world's largest museums, the most visited art museum in the world and a historic monument. A central landmark of Paris, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement...
.
- The PhilharmoniePhilharmonie LuxembourgThe Grande-Duchesse Joséphine-Charlotte Concert Hall is a concert hall located on the Kirchberg plateau in the City of Luxembourg. Opened in 2005, it now plays host to 400 performances each year and is one of the main concert halls in Europe.-Origins:...
(2005) concert hall designed by Christian de PortzamparcChristian de PortzamparcChristian de Portzamparc is a French architect and urbanist. He graduated from the École Nationale des Beaux Arts in Paris in 1970 and has since been noted for his bold designs and artistic touch; his projects reflect a sensibility to their environment and the town is a founding principal of his...
. Located on the Kirchberg plateau, the Philharmonie consists of a peristyle with 827 columns giving the impression of a cliff bearing luminous faults.
- The new European Investment BankEuropean Investment BankThe European Investment Bank is the European Union's long-term lending institution established in 1958 under the Treaty of Rome. A policy-driven bank, the EIB supports the EU’s priority objectives, especially European integration and the development of economically weak regions...
building (2008) designed by Christoph Ingenhoven of Ingenhoven ArchitectsIngenhoven ArchitectsIngenhoven Architects is an architectural firm based in Düsseldorf, Germany. Founded in 1985, the office became notable for its ecologically oriented designs for high-rise buildings. Until 2003 the company was named Ingenhoven Overdiek and Partner.-Design:...
, Düsseldorf.
- The National Sports and Cultural Centre, commonly known as the Coque in view of its shell-like appearance. Designed by the French architect Roger Taillibert, it was completed in 2001.