Archivist
Encyclopedia
Photograph
A photograph is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic imager such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene's visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of...
s, video
Video
Video is the technology of electronically capturing, recording, processing, storing, transmitting, and reconstructing a sequence of still images representing scenes in motion.- History :...
or sound recordings, letters, documents, electronic records, etc.). As Richard Pearce-Moses wrote,
"Archivists keep records that have enduring value as reliable memories of the past, and they help people find and understand the information they need in those records."
Determining what records have enduring value can be challenging. Archivists must also select records valuable enough to justify the costs of storage and preservation, plus the labor intensive expenses of arrangement, description, and reference service. The theory and scholarly work underpinning archives practices is called archival science
Archival science
Archival science is the theory and study of storing, cataloguing, and retrieving documents and items. Archival science evolved from mankind's need to classify the world around them...
.
Duties and work environment
Archivists' duties include acquiring and appraisingArchival appraisal
In the archival sense, appraisal is a process usually conducted by a member of the record-holding institution in which a body of records are examined to determine their value...
new collections, arranging and describing records, providing reference service, and preserving materials. In arranging records, archivists apply two important principles: provenance
Provenance
Provenance, from the French provenir, "to come from", refers to the chronology of the ownership or location of an historical object. The term was originally mostly used for works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including science and computing...
and original order, sometimes referred to as respect des fonds
Fonds
Fonds is an archival term used to describe an aggregation of documents that originate from the same source. More specifically, a fonds distinguishes itself from a collection through its organic nature, as archival documents that have been naturally accumulated by an individual, company,...
. Provenance refers to the origin of records, essentially who created them. Many entities create records, including government, businesses, universities, and personal collections of individuals. The idea of respect des fonds
Fonds
Fonds is an archival term used to describe an aggregation of documents that originate from the same source. More specifically, a fonds distinguishes itself from a collection through its organic nature, as archival documents that have been naturally accumulated by an individual, company,...
is applied by keeping records in their original order as established and maintained by the creator(s). This also means that records from one corporate body should not be mixed with records from another. There are two aspects to arrangement: intellectual and physical. Both aspects follow the principle of original order. Archivists process the records physically by placing them in folders and boxes, usually acid free to ensure their long-term survival. They also process the records intellectually, by determining what the records consist of, how they are organized, and what -- if any -- finding aids need to be created. Finding aids can be box lists or descriptive inventories, or indexes. If the original arrangement is unclear or even unhelpful in terms of accessing the collection, it is not usually rearranged to something that makes more sense. This is because preserving the original order answers the most questions about the collection. It shows how the creator of the records functioned, why the records were created, and how he went about arranging them. If the archivist rearranged them, the records would lose the ability to answer these questions. It would also lose all significance, as the provenance and authenticity of the records may be lost. However, original order is not always the best way to maintain some collections and archivists must use their own experience and current best practices to determine the correct way to keep collections of mixed media or those lacking a clear original arrangement.
American archivists are also guided in their work by a code of ethics. Alongside their work behind the scenes arranging and caring for collections, archivists assist users in interpreting collections and answering inquiries. This reference work can be just part of an archivist's job in a smaller organization, or consist of most of their occupation in a larger archive where specific roles (such as processing archivist and reference archivist
Reference interview
A reference interview is a conversation between a librarian and a library user, usually at a reference desk, in which the librarian responds to the user's initial explanation of his or her information need by first attempting to clarify that need and then by directing the user to appropriate...
) may be delineated.
Archivists work for a variety of organizations, including government agencies
Government agency
A government or state agency is a permanent or semi-permanent organization in the machinery of government that is responsible for the oversight and administration of specific functions, such as an intelligence agency. There is a notable variety of agency types...
, local authorities, museum
Museum
A museum is an institution that cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities...
s, hospitals, historical societies, business
Business
A business is an organization engaged in the trade of goods, services, or both to consumers. Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and administered to earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also be not-for-profit...
es, charities, corporation
Corporation
A corporation is created under the laws of a state as a separate legal entity that has privileges and liabilities that are distinct from those of its members. There are many different forms of corporations, most of which are used to conduct business. Early corporations were established by charter...
s, colleges and universities, and any institution
Institution
An institution is any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human community...
whose records may potentially be valuable to researchers, exhibitors, genealogists, or others. Alternatively, they could also work on the collections of a large family
Family
In human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
or even of an individual
Individual
An individual is a person or any specific object or thing in a collection. Individuality is the state or quality of being an individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires. Being self expressive...
. Applicants for archives jobs usually outnumber positions available.
Archivists are often educators as well; it is not unusual for an archivist employed at a university or college to lecture in a subject related to their collection. Archivists employed at cultural institutions or for local government frequently design educational or outreach programs to further the ability of archive users to understand and access information in their collections. This might include such varied activities as exhibitions, promotional
Advertising campaign
An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which make up an integrated marketing communication...
events or even media
Mass media
Mass media refers collectively to all media technologies which are intended to reach a large audience via mass communication. Broadcast media transmit their information electronically and comprise of television, film and radio, movies, CDs, DVDs and some other gadgets like cameras or video consoles...
coverage.
The advent of Encoded Archival Description
Encoded Archival Description
Encoded Archival Description is an XML standard for encoding archival finding aids, maintained by the Library of Congress in partnership with the Society of American Archivists.-History:EAD originated in 1993, at the University of California, Berkeley...
, along with increasing demand for materials to be made available online, has required archivists to become more tech-savvy in the past decade. Many archivists are now acquiring basic XML skills in order to make their finding aids available to researchers online.
Skills
Because of the varied nature of the job and organisations and work environment, archivists need to have a wide range of skills:- Those who work in reference and access-oriented positions need to be good with peoplePeoplePeople is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:* as the plural of person or a group of people People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:*...
, so that they are able to help them with their research. - An ability to apply some basic knowledge of conservation is needed to help extend the useful life of cultural artifacts. Many different types of media (such as photographs, acidic papers, and unstable copy processes) can deteriorate if not stored and maintained properly.
- Although many archival collections consist solely of paper records, increasingly archivists must confront the new challenges posed by the preservationDigital preservationDigital preservation is the set of processes, activities and management of digital information over time to ensure its long term accessibility. The goal of digital preservation is to preserve materials resulting from digital reformatting, and particularly information that is born-digital with no...
of electronic records, so they need to be forward-looking and technologically proficient. - Because of the amount of sorting and listing, they need to be very logical and organised and be able to pay attention to detail.
- When cataloging records, or when assisting users, archivists need to have some researchResearchResearch can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
skills. - Archivists are occasionally called upon to comment or provide some context for the records in their collection and so should know as much about their collection as possible.
Educational preparation
The educational preparation for archivists varies from country to country.Colombia
In ColombiaColombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
, the Universidad de La Salle offers the degree of Professional in Information Systems, Library and Archival Sciences. It is a vocational training program, within existing legal standards aimed at providing knowledge, skills and abilities required for the design and management of information systems and documentation of various sorts. Its projection for the future is based on the application of new information technologies and communications for the management of information services economically viable. The program was created in 1971.
Other institutions that offers a degree in Archival Science are:
- Universidad del Quindío - Professional degree: Professional in Information and Documentation, Library and Archival Sciences.
- Universidad de Antioquia, Escuela Interamericana de Bibliotecología - Technological degree: Technologist in Archival Science.
- Universidad Católica de Manizales - Technological degree: Technologist in Documentation and Archival Science.
- Servicio Nacional de AprendizajeServicio Nacional de AprendizajeThe National Learning Service is a Colombian public institution focused in the development of programs of professional formation. It's a government initiative to develop education in Colombia and foment employment.-External links:* *...
- SENA - in chain training with the ://plataforma.unipamplona.edu.co/tda Tecnológico de Antioquia - Technical degree: Professional Technical in Archives.
France
In France the oldest Archivist School is the École des chartes, founded in 1821. This prestigious grande école offers a diploma in "Archivist-Paleography" after a three-year curriculum. A part of its alumni pursue to a State archivist career after a 18 month formation at the Institut national du patrimoine. Most positions are reserved for European citizens.Some universities offer Master's degree in Archival Science : Angers
University of Angers
The University of Angers is an institution of higher learning situated in the town of the same name, in western France. It was founded in 1356, closed down in 1793, and reestablished in 1971....
, Caen, Dijon, Lille III
Charles de Gaulle University - Lille III
The Charles de Gaulle University - Lille III is a French university. Since 1974, the main campus of University of Lille III is located in Villeneuve d'Ascq in southern Lille, at Pont de Bois metro station, and includes 21,000 students.University of Lille III inherits from the humanities taught for...
, Lyon III
Jean Moulin University Lyon 3
Jean Moulin University Lyon 3 is a French public university, based in Lyon. It is under the supervision of the Academy of Lyon...
, Mulhouse
Upper Alsace University
Haute Alsace University is a multidisciplinary teaching and research centre based in the two cities of Mulhouse and Colmar....
, Versailles Saint-Quentin
Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University
Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University is a French university, in the Academy of Versailles.- Sciences :Located in Versailles and Le Chesnay....
,
Republic of Ireland
In IrelandRepublic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
, the University College Dublin School of History and Archives offers a Masters of Arts degree in Archives and Records Management, recognised by the Society of Archivists.
United Kingdom
In the United KingdomUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, there are currently five full- or part-time postgraduate courses in archives administration or management which are recognised by the Archives and Records Association
Archives and Records Association
The Archives and Records Association is the principal professional body for archivists, archive conservators and records managers in the UK and Ireland...
(United Kingdom and Ireland), formerly the Society of Archivists
Society of Archivists
The Society of Archivists was the principal professional body for archivists, archive conservators and records managers in the United Kingdom and Ireland...
. Students are expected to have relevant paid or voluntary work experience
Work experience
Work experience is the experience that a person has been working, or worked in a specific field or occupation.- Volunteer work and internships :...
before obtaining a place on the UK courses; many undertake a year's traineeship. Also, professional certification (after qualifying) can be pursued via the Registration Scheme offered by the Society of Archivists.
United States
According to the most recent professional census of American Archivists published, most of those in the United States have earned a Masters degree. However, the exact type of degree can vary; the most common sorts of advanced degrees held by archivists are in archival scienceArchival science
Archival science is the theory and study of storing, cataloguing, and retrieving documents and items. Archival science evolved from mankind's need to classify the world around them...
, public history
Public history
Public history is a term that describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation,...
, history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
, library science
Library science
Library science is an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation, and dissemination of information resources; and the...
, or library and information science
Library and information science
Library and information science is a merging of the two fields library science and information science...
. It is also possible for archivists to earn a doctorate
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
in library, or library and information, science. Archivists with a Ph. D. often work at a teaching faculty or deans and directors of archival programs. In 2002, the Society of American Archivists
Society of American Archivists
The Society of American Archivists is the oldest and largest archivist association in North America, serving the educational and informational needs of more than 5,000 individual and institutional members...
published Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies, as well as a code of ethics.
Also in the United States, the Academy of Certified Archivists offers supplemental archival training by means of a certification program. When first established in 1989, some critics of ACA certification objected to its annual membership fees, the theoretical versus practical nature of its tests, and the need for members to re-certify every five years. However, in the decades since, it has been agreed that such requirements are comparable with certification programs in other professions, and that certification strengthens professional standards and individual competencies. While some positions in archives require certification and many employers view certification as preferred, it is not required by all employers in the United States.
Professional organizations and continuing education
Many archivists belong to a professional organization, such as the Society of American ArchivistsSociety of American Archivists
The Society of American Archivists is the oldest and largest archivist association in North America, serving the educational and informational needs of more than 5,000 individual and institutional members...
, the Association of Canadian Archivists
Association of Canadian Archivists
The Association of Canadian Archivists, or ACA is a national not-for-profit organization representing over 600 archivists in Canada...
, the Archives and Records Association
Archives and Records Association
The Archives and Records Association is the principal professional body for archivists, archive conservators and records managers in the UK and Ireland...
(UK/Ireland), the Colombian College of Archivists - CCA
Colombian College of Archivists - CCA
The Colombian College of Archivists - CCA is a private institution of social, scientific research, democratic, participatory and pluralistic character, which is based in the work, interdisciplinarity, participation and outreach and professional growth of its partners for the benefit of...
and the Australian Society of Archivists, as well as any number of local or regional associations. These organizations often provide ongoing educational opportunities to their members and other interested practitioners. In addition to formal degrees and or apprenticeships, many archivists take part in continuing education opportunities as available through professional associations and library school programs. New discoveries in the fields of media preservation
Media preservation
Preservation of document, pictures, recordings, digital content, etc., is a major aspect of archival science. It is also an important consideration for people who are creating time capsules, family history, historical documents, scrapbooks and family trees...
and emerging technologies require continuing education as part of an archivist's job in order to stay current in the profession.
History of the profession
In 1898 three Dutch archivists, Samuel Muller, Johan Feith, and Robert Fruin, published the first Western text on archival theory entitled "Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives". Produced for the Dutch Association of Archivists, it set out one hundred rules for archivists to base their work around. Notably within these rules the principle of preserving provenanceProvenance
Provenance, from the French provenir, "to come from", refers to the chronology of the ownership or location of an historical object. The term was originally mostly used for works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including science and computing...
and original order was first argued for as an essential trait of archival arrangement and description.
The next major text was written in 1922 by Sir Hilary Jenkinson, the then Deputy Keeper of the British Public Records Office, entitled "Manual of Archive Administration". In this work Jenkinson states that archives are evidence and that the moral and physical defence of this evidential value is the central tenet of archival work. He further outlines his ideas of what an Archive should be and how it should operate.
In 1956, T. R. Schellenberg, who is known as the "Father of American Archival Appraisal", published "Modern Archives". Schellenberg's work was intended to be an academic textbook defining archival methodology and giving archivists specific technical instruction on workflow and arrangement. Moving away from Jenkinson's organic and passive approach to archival acquisition, where the administrator decided what was kept and what was destroyed, Schellenberg argued for a more active approach by archivists to appraisal. His primary (administrative) and secondary (research) value model for the management and appraisal of records and archives allowed government archivists greater control over the influx of material that they faced after the Second World War. As a result of the widespread adoption of Schellenberg's methods, especially in the United States of America, modern Records Management
Records Management
Records management, or RM, is the practice of maintaining the records of an organization from the time they are created up to their eventual disposal...
as a separate but related discipline was born.
In 1972, Ernst Posner published "Archives in the Ancient World". Posner's work emphasized that archives were not new inventions, but had existed in many different societies throughout recorded history.
In 1975, essays by Margaret Cross Norton
Margaret C. Norton
Margaret Cross Norton served as the first State Archivist of Illinois from 1922 to 1957 and co-founded the Society of American Archivists in 1936, where she served as the first vice president from 1936–1937 and president from 1943-1945. She also served as editor of the American Archivist from...
were collected under the title of "Norton on Archives: The Writings of Margaret Cross Norton on Archival and Records Management". Norton was one of the founders of the Society of American Archivists
Society of American Archivists
The Society of American Archivists is the oldest and largest archivist association in North America, serving the educational and informational needs of more than 5,000 individual and institutional members...
, and wrote essays based on her decades of experience working in the Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...
State Archives.
Archives 2.0
Archivists, like librarians, are taking advantage of Web 2.0Web 2.0
The term Web 2.0 is associated with web applications that facilitate participatory information sharing, interoperability, user-centered design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web...
technologies such as blogs, wikis, as well as open access and open source
Open source
The term open source describes practices in production and development that promote access to the end product's source materials. Some consider open source a philosophy, others consider it a pragmatic methodology...
philosophies.