Arenavirus
Encyclopedia
Arenavirus is a genus of virus
that infects rodents and occasionally humans. At least eight Arenaviruses are known to cause human disease. The diseases derived from Arenaviruses range in severity. Aseptic meningitis, a severe human disease that causes inflammation covering the brain and spinal cord, can arise from the Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection. Hemorrhagic fever syndromes are derived from infections such Guanarito virus (GTOV), Junin virus (JUNV), Lassa virus (LASV) causing Lassa fever
, Machupo virus (MACV), Sabia virus (SABV), or Whitewater Arroyo virus (WWAV). Arenaviruses are divided into two groups; the Old World or New World. The differences between these groups are distinguished geographically and genetically. Because of the epidemiological association with rodents, some arenaviruses and bunyaviruses are designated as Robovirus
es.
s acquired from their host cells. It is from this characteristic that they acquired the name Arena
which comes from the Latin root meaning sand
. These are round, pleomorphic, and enveloped with a diameter of 120 nm. The virus contains a beaded nucleocapsid with two single-stranded RNA segments.
The nucleocapsid is the basic structure of a virus, consisting of a core of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat. The strands of RNA are considered negative sense, but encode genes in both directions and are thus ambisense. The life cycle of the arena virus is restricted to the cell cytoplasm. Virus particles, or virions, are pleomorphic because they vary in appearances but in many cases they are spherical in shape and covered with surface glycoprotein spikes. The sand looking ribosomal structures are not believed to be essential in virus replication but they certainly give this replicating virus reason to its name.
is the study of viruses and virus-like agents including their structure, classification, evolution, and ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction, the diseases they cause, and the techniques that can be used to isolate and even cure them if possible.
When the virus is classified “Old World” this means it was found in the Eastern Hemisphere in places such as Europe, Asia, and Africa. When it is found in the Western Hemisphere, in places such as Argentina, Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil, and the United States, it is classified “New World”. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) virus is the only Arenavirus to exist in both areas but is classified as an Old World virus.
genome that consists of two single-stranded negative-sense RNAs. As with all negative-sense RNA viruses, the genomic RNA alone is not infectious and the viral replication machinery is required to initiate infection within a host cell. Genomic sense RNA packaged into the arenavirus virion is designated negative-sense RNA, and must first be copied into a positive-sense mRNA in order to produce viral protein
. The two RNA segments are denoted Small (S) and Large (L), and code for four viral proteins in a unique ambisense coding strategy. Each RNA segment codes for two viral proteins in opposite orientation such that the negative-sense RNA genome serves as the template for transcription
of a single mRNA and the positive-sense copy of the RNA genome templates a second mRNA. The separate coding sequences of the two viral proteins are divided by an intergenic region RNA sequence that is predicted to fold into a stable hairpin structure.
The extreme termini of each RNA segment contains a 19 nucleotide
highly conserved sequence that is critical for recruitment of the viral replication machinery and initiation of viral mRNA transcription
and genomic replication
. The conserved 5' and 3' RNA termini sequences are complementary and allows each RNA segment to adopt a double-stranded RNA panhandle structure that maintains the termini in close proximity and results in a circular appearance to purified arenavirus genomic templates visualized by electron microscopy. The double-stranded RNA panhandle structure is critical for efficient viral RNA synthesis, but potential intertermini double-stranded RNA interactions must be transiently relieved in order to recruit the viral polymerase
.
The S-segment RNA is approximately 3.5 kb, and encodes the viral nucleocapsid protein (NP) and glycoprotein (GPC). The L-segment RNA is approximately 7.2 kb, and encodes the viral RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (L) and a small RING-domain containing protein (Z).
pathogens and are generally associated with rodent
—transmitted disease in humans. Each virus usually is associated with a particular rodent host species in which it is maintained.
Arenaviruses persist in nature by infecting rodents first and then transmitted in to humans. Humans can be infected through mucosal exposure to aerosols, or by direct contact of abraded skin with the infectious material, derived from infected rodents. Aersols are fine mists or sprays of rodent dried excreta, especially urine that is dropped in the environment. Most of the Arenaviruses caught by humans are within their own homes when these rodents seek shelter. The virus can be caught in factories, from food that has been contaminated, or within agricultural work areas. The risk of getting the Arenavirus infection for humans is related to age, race, or sex within the degree of contact with the dried rodent excreta.
2. Lassa fever virus causes Lassa fever. Lassa fever is endemic in west Africa.The virus was first isolated from Americans stationed in the village of Lassa, Nigeria.The virus can be transmitted person-to -person.
a. Subclinical diseases: Serological studies suggest that inapparent infections particularly among members of hunting tribes are common.
b. Clinical infections:Lassa fever is characterised by high fever,severe myalgia,coagulopathy,haemorrhagic skin rash,and occasional visceral haemorrhage as well as necrosis of liver and spleen.
3. other Arenaviruses like Junin virus, Machupo virus cause haemorrhagic fevers.
All of these diseases pose a great threat to public health in the regions where it is taking place. For example, when the Old World Lassa virus turns into Lassa fever, this usually results in a significant amount of mortality. Similarly the New World Junin virus causes Argentine hemorrhagic fever. This fever is a several illness with hemorrhagic and neurological manifestations and a case fatality of fifteen to thirty percent. The way this virus spreads is through increased traveling to and from endemic regions. This traveling has led to the importation of Lassa fever into non- endemic metropolitan areas all over the world.
has been linked to five patients who exhibited symptoms of viral hemorrhagic fever in South Africa. The disease originated near Lusaka, Zambia
and spread to Johannesburg
, South Africa
, after the first patient was transported to a hospital there. The results of genetic sequencing tests conducted by epidemiologists at Columbia University
in New York CIty
, USA, and at the Special Pathogens Branch of the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, USA, provided evidence that the causative agent of the disease is a virus from the Arenaviridae family, which ultimately resulted in the deaths of four out of the five infected in Zambia and South Africa during the outbreak which began in September 2008.
Arenavirus has also recently pinpointed as the cause of death of three donor organ recipients in Australia who contracted the virus after receiving kidney and a liver donations from a single infected organ donor in late 2006. All three died in the first week of 2007.
WHO
and its Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN) partners continue to support the Ministries of Health of the two countries in various facets of the outbreak investigation, including laboratory diagnosis, investigations, active case finding and follow-up of contacts.
Virus
A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
that infects rodents and occasionally humans. At least eight Arenaviruses are known to cause human disease. The diseases derived from Arenaviruses range in severity. Aseptic meningitis, a severe human disease that causes inflammation covering the brain and spinal cord, can arise from the Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection. Hemorrhagic fever syndromes are derived from infections such Guanarito virus (GTOV), Junin virus (JUNV), Lassa virus (LASV) causing Lassa fever
Lassa fever
Lassa fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic fever caused by the Lassa virus and first described in 1969 in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria, in the Yedseram river valley at the south end of Lake Chad. Clinical cases of the disease had been known for over a decade but had not been connected...
, Machupo virus (MACV), Sabia virus (SABV), or Whitewater Arroyo virus (WWAV). Arenaviruses are divided into two groups; the Old World or New World. The differences between these groups are distinguished geographically and genetically. Because of the epidemiological association with rodents, some arenaviruses and bunyaviruses are designated as Robovirus
Robovirus
A robovirus is a zoonotic virus that is transmitted by a rodent.Like arbovirus, it refers to a vector, not a clade.Some members of Bunyaviridae and Arenaviridae are roboviruses, but some are not....
es.
Structure
Viewed in cross-section, they show grainy particles that are ribosomeRibosome
A ribosome is a component of cells that assembles the twenty specific amino acid molecules to form the particular protein molecule determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule....
s acquired from their host cells. It is from this characteristic that they acquired the name Arena
Arena
An arena is an enclosed area, often circular or oval-shaped, designed to showcase theater, musical performances, or sporting events. It is composed of a large open space surrounded on most or all sides by tiered seating for spectators. The key feature of an arena is that the event space is the...
which comes from the Latin root meaning sand
Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal...
. These are round, pleomorphic, and enveloped with a diameter of 120 nm. The virus contains a beaded nucleocapsid with two single-stranded RNA segments.
The nucleocapsid is the basic structure of a virus, consisting of a core of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat. The strands of RNA are considered negative sense, but encode genes in both directions and are thus ambisense. The life cycle of the arena virus is restricted to the cell cytoplasm. Virus particles, or virions, are pleomorphic because they vary in appearances but in many cases they are spherical in shape and covered with surface glycoprotein spikes. The sand looking ribosomal structures are not believed to be essential in virus replication but they certainly give this replicating virus reason to its name.
Virology
VirologyVirology
Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy...
is the study of viruses and virus-like agents including their structure, classification, evolution, and ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction, the diseases they cause, and the techniques that can be used to isolate and even cure them if possible.
Classification
Arenaviruses can be divided into two serogroups, which differ genetically and by geographical distribution:When the virus is classified “Old World” this means it was found in the Eastern Hemisphere in places such as Europe, Asia, and Africa. When it is found in the Western Hemisphere, in places such as Argentina, Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil, and the United States, it is classified “New World”. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) virus is the only Arenavirus to exist in both areas but is classified as an Old World virus.
- LCMV-Lassa virus (Old World) complex:
- Gbagroube virus
- Ippy virus
- Kodoko virus
- Lassa virus
- Lujo virusLujo virusLujo is a bisegmented RNA virus and a member of the Arenaviridae. Its name was suggested by the Special Pathogens Unit of the National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service by using the first two letters of the names of the cities involved in the 2008...
- Luna virus
- Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
- Merino Walk virus
- Menekre virus
- Mobala virus
- Mopeia virus
- Tacaribe virus (New World) complex:
- Amapari virus
- Chapare virusChapare virusChapare virus causes hemorrhagic fever and is a member of the arenavirus family of viruses. The only known outbreak of Chapare virus infection occurred in the village of Samuzabeti, Chapare Province, Bolivia, in January 2003. A small number of people were infected. One person died...
- Flexal virus
- Guanarito virus
- Junin virusJunin virus-Morphology and genome structure:The Junin virus virion is enveloped with a variable diameter of between 50 and 300 nm. The surface of the particle encompasses a layer of T-shaped glycoprotein extensions, extending up to 10 nm from the envelope, which are important for mediating...
- Latino virus
- Machupo virus
- Oliveros virus
- Paraná virus
- Pichinde virus
- Pirital virus
- Sabiá virus
- Tacaribe virus
- Tamiami virus
- Whitewater Arroyo virus
Genome
Arenaviruses have a segmented RNARNA
Ribonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
genome that consists of two single-stranded negative-sense RNAs. As with all negative-sense RNA viruses, the genomic RNA alone is not infectious and the viral replication machinery is required to initiate infection within a host cell. Genomic sense RNA packaged into the arenavirus virion is designated negative-sense RNA, and must first be copied into a positive-sense mRNA in order to produce viral protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
. The two RNA segments are denoted Small (S) and Large (L), and code for four viral proteins in a unique ambisense coding strategy. Each RNA segment codes for two viral proteins in opposite orientation such that the negative-sense RNA genome serves as the template for transcription
Transcription
Transcription may refer to:*Transcription , a business which converts speech into a written or electronic text document*Transcription , software which helps convert speech into text transcript...
of a single mRNA and the positive-sense copy of the RNA genome templates a second mRNA. The separate coding sequences of the two viral proteins are divided by an intergenic region RNA sequence that is predicted to fold into a stable hairpin structure.
The extreme termini of each RNA segment contains a 19 nucleotide
Nucleotide
Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA. In addition, nucleotides participate in cellular signaling , and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions...
highly conserved sequence that is critical for recruitment of the viral replication machinery and initiation of viral mRNA transcription
Transcription
Transcription may refer to:*Transcription , a business which converts speech into a written or electronic text document*Transcription , software which helps convert speech into text transcript...
and genomic replication
DNA replication
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance. The process starts with one double-stranded DNA molecule and produces two identical copies of the molecule...
. The conserved 5' and 3' RNA termini sequences are complementary and allows each RNA segment to adopt a double-stranded RNA panhandle structure that maintains the termini in close proximity and results in a circular appearance to purified arenavirus genomic templates visualized by electron microscopy. The double-stranded RNA panhandle structure is critical for efficient viral RNA synthesis, but potential intertermini double-stranded RNA interactions must be transiently relieved in order to recruit the viral polymerase
Polymerase
A polymerase is an enzyme whose central function is associated with polymers of nucleic acids such as RNA and DNA.The primary function of a polymerase is the polymerization of new DNA or RNA against an existing DNA or RNA template in the processes of replication and transcription...
.
The S-segment RNA is approximately 3.5 kb, and encodes the viral nucleocapsid protein (NP) and glycoprotein (GPC). The L-segment RNA is approximately 7.2 kb, and encodes the viral RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase (L) and a small RING-domain containing protein (Z).
Viral reservoir
Some arenaviruses are zoonoticZoonosis
A zoonosis or zoonoseis any infectious disease that can be transmitted from non-human animals to humans or from humans to non-human animals . In a study of 1415 pathogens known to affect humans, 61% were zoonotic...
pathogens and are generally associated with rodent
Rodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
—transmitted disease in humans. Each virus usually is associated with a particular rodent host species in which it is maintained.
Arenaviruses persist in nature by infecting rodents first and then transmitted in to humans. Humans can be infected through mucosal exposure to aerosols, or by direct contact of abraded skin with the infectious material, derived from infected rodents. Aersols are fine mists or sprays of rodent dried excreta, especially urine that is dropped in the environment. Most of the Arenaviruses caught by humans are within their own homes when these rodents seek shelter. The virus can be caught in factories, from food that has been contaminated, or within agricultural work areas. The risk of getting the Arenavirus infection for humans is related to age, race, or sex within the degree of contact with the dried rodent excreta.
Vectors
| Virus | Disease | Vector | Distribution |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus | Lymphocytic choriomeningitis | House mouse House mouse The house mouse is a small rodent, a mouse, one of the most numerous species of the genus Mus.As a wild animal the house mouse mainly lives associated with humans, causing damage to crops and stored food.... (Mus musculus) |
Worldwide |
| Lassa virus | Lassa fever Lassa fever Lassa fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic fever caused by the Lassa virus and first described in 1969 in the town of Lassa, in Borno State, Nigeria, in the Yedseram river valley at the south end of Lake Chad. Clinical cases of the disease had been known for over a decade but had not been connected... |
Natal Multimammate Mouse Natal Multimammate Mouse The Natal Multimammate Mouse is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is also known as the Natal Multimammate Rat, the Common African Rat, or the African Soft-furred Rat.-Range:... (Mastomys natalensis) |
West Africa |
| Junin virus | Argentine hemorrhagic fever Argentine hemorrhagic fever Argentine hemorrhagic fever or O'Higgins disease, also known in Argentina as mal de los rastrojos, stubble disease, is a hemorrhagic fever and zoonotic infectious disease occurring in Argentina. It is caused by the Junín virus... |
Drylands Vesper Mouse (Calomys musculinus) | Argentina Argentina Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires... |
| Machupo virus | Bolivian hemorrhagic fever Bolivian hemorrhagic fever Bolivian hemorrhagic fever , also known as black typhus or Ordog Fever, is a hemorrhagic fever and zoonotic infectious disease originating in Bolivia after infection by Machupo virus.... |
Large Vesper Mouse (Calomys callosus) | Bolivia Bolivia Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America... |
| Guanarito virus | Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever is a zoonotic human illness, first identified in 1989.-Presentation:It causes fever and malaise followed by hemorrhagic manifestations and convulsions. It is fatal in 30% of cases. The disease is endemic to Portuguesa state and Barinas state in Venezuela . This virus... |
Short-tailed Cane Mouse (Zygodontomys brevicauda) | Venezuela Venezuela Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south... |
| Sabiá virus | Brazilian hemorrhagic fever Brazilian hemorrhagic fever Brazilian hemorrhagic fever is an infectious disease caused by the Sabiá virus, an Arenavirus. The Sabiá virus is an enveloped RNA virus and is highly infectious and lethal.... |
Unknown | Brazil Brazil Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people... |
| Tacaribe virus | Bat Bat Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera "hand" and pteron "wing") whose forelimbs form webbed wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums, and colugos, glide rather than fly,... (Artibeus Artibeus The Neotropical fruit bats are a genus of bats within the subfamily Stenodermatinae. The genus consists of 21 species, which are native to Central and South America, as well as parts of the Caribbean.-Description:... ) |
Trinidad Trinidad Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. It is the southernmost island in the Caribbean and lies just off the northeastern coast of Venezuela. With an area of it is also the fifth largest in... |
|
| Flexal virus | Influenza Influenza Influenza, commonly referred to as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae , that affects birds and mammals... -like illness |
Rice rat (Oryzomys Oryzomys Oryzomys is a genus of semiaquatic rodents in the tribe Oryzomyini living in southern North America and far northern South America. It includes eight species, two of which—the marsh rice rat of the United States and O. couesi of Mexico and Central America—are widespread; the six others have... ) |
Brazil |
| Whitewater Arroyo virus | Hemorrhagic fever | Woodrat (Neotoma) | Southwestern USA |
Clinical diseases
1. LCM viruses causes influenza -like febrile illness,but occasionally it may cause meningitis,characteristically accompanied by large numbers of lymphocytes in the CSF (as the name LCM suggests).2. Lassa fever virus causes Lassa fever. Lassa fever is endemic in west Africa.The virus was first isolated from Americans stationed in the village of Lassa, Nigeria.The virus can be transmitted person-to -person.
a. Subclinical diseases: Serological studies suggest that inapparent infections particularly among members of hunting tribes are common.
b. Clinical infections:Lassa fever is characterised by high fever,severe myalgia,coagulopathy,haemorrhagic skin rash,and occasional visceral haemorrhage as well as necrosis of liver and spleen.
3. other Arenaviruses like Junin virus, Machupo virus cause haemorrhagic fevers.
All of these diseases pose a great threat to public health in the regions where it is taking place. For example, when the Old World Lassa virus turns into Lassa fever, this usually results in a significant amount of mortality. Similarly the New World Junin virus causes Argentine hemorrhagic fever. This fever is a several illness with hemorrhagic and neurological manifestations and a case fatality of fifteen to thirty percent. The way this virus spreads is through increased traveling to and from endemic regions. This traveling has led to the importation of Lassa fever into non- endemic metropolitan areas all over the world.
Recent outbreaks
A new species of arenavirus named the Lujo virusLujo virus
Lujo is a bisegmented RNA virus and a member of the Arenaviridae. Its name was suggested by the Special Pathogens Unit of the National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service by using the first two letters of the names of the cities involved in the 2008...
has been linked to five patients who exhibited symptoms of viral hemorrhagic fever in South Africa. The disease originated near Lusaka, Zambia
Zambia
Zambia , officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. The neighbouring countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west....
and spread to Johannesburg
Johannesburg
Johannesburg also known as Jozi, Jo'burg or Egoli, is the largest city in South Africa, by population. Johannesburg is the provincial capital of Gauteng, the wealthiest province in South Africa, having the largest economy of any metropolitan region in Sub-Saharan Africa...
, South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
, after the first patient was transported to a hospital there. The results of genetic sequencing tests conducted by epidemiologists at Columbia University
Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...
in New York CIty
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
, USA, and at the Special Pathogens Branch of the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, USA, provided evidence that the causative agent of the disease is a virus from the Arenaviridae family, which ultimately resulted in the deaths of four out of the five infected in Zambia and South Africa during the outbreak which began in September 2008.
Arenavirus has also recently pinpointed as the cause of death of three donor organ recipients in Australia who contracted the virus after receiving kidney and a liver donations from a single infected organ donor in late 2006. All three died in the first week of 2007.
WHO
Who
Who may refer to:* Who , an English-language pronoun* who , a Unix command* Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism- Art and entertainment :* Who? , a 1958 novel by Algis Budrys...
and its Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN) partners continue to support the Ministries of Health of the two countries in various facets of the outbreak investigation, including laboratory diagnosis, investigations, active case finding and follow-up of contacts.
Treatments
This virus can be very devastating yet there are very few treatment methods available. The current lack of a licensed vaccine and limited therapeutic options for the Arenavirus make it arguably among the most neglected virus to be dealt with. The only licensed drug for the treatment of human Arenavirus infection is the nucleoside analogue ribavirin. Ribavirin reduces morbidity and mortality in humans who have certain Arenaviruses, such as LASV and JUNV infections, if it is taken in the early stages of the disease. Ribavirin displays mixed success in treating severe Arenaviral disease and is associated with significant toxicities. Effective anti-viral drugs need to be produced at a low cost, taken orally, and able to withstand tropical climates due to the regions where these infections are occurring. For this reason high throughput screening (HTS) of small molecular libraries could be the answer to finding a better remedy. HTS collects libraries of small synthetic molecules that can be used to identify protein promoting “agonist” molecules or protein inhibiting “antagonist” interactions. With HTS sustainable anti-viral drugs can be discovered against possible new human pathogenic viruses.External links
- Viralzone: Arenavirus
- Detailed genomic and bioinformatic information about Arenaviridae at NIH-funded database.
- Arenaviridae Genomes database search results from the Viral Bioinformatics Resource Center.
- Google.Org blog info on recent outbreak.
- Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR): Arenaviridae