Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga
Encyclopedia
Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga is a system of yoga
popularized by K. Pattabhi Jois
, and which is often promoted as a modern-day form of classical Indian yoga. Pattabhi Jois began his yoga studies in 1927 at the age of 12, and by 1948 had established an institute for teaching the specific yoga practice known as Ashtanga (Sanskrit for "eight-limbed") Yoga.
Power yoga is a generic term that may refer to any type of vigorous yoga exercise derived from Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga.
refers to the alignment of movement and breath, a method which turns static yoga postures into a dynamic flow. The length of one inhale or one exhale dictates the length of time spent transitioning between postures. Poses are then held for a predefined number of breaths. In effect, attention is placed on the breath and the journey between the postures rather than solely on achieving perfect body alignment in a pose, as is emphasized in Hatha yoga
.
The term vinyasa also refers to a specific series of movements that are frequently done between each pose in a series. This viṅyāsa 'flow' is a variant of Sūrya namaskāra
, the Sun Salutation, and is used in other styles of yoga beside Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. A standard viṅyāsa
consists (for example) of the flow from caturaṅga, or plank, to caturaṅga daṇḍāsana, or low plank, to ūrdhva mukha śvānāsana or upward-facing dog, to Adho Mukha Svanasana
, or downward-facing dog.
The breathing style used in Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga is Ujjayi
which is a relaxed diaphragmatic style of breathing, characterized by an ocean sound which resonates in the practitioner's throat. Throughout a practice, this specific breathing style is maintained in alignment with movements. The steady cycle of inhales and exhales provides the practitioner with a calming, mental focal point. Additionally, viṅyāsa and Ujjayi together create internal heat, which leads to purification of the body through increased circulation and sweating.
Another major principle of Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga is the bandha
, or muscle locking/contraction, which focuses energy in the body and is closely tied to the breath. There are a variety of bandhas (see below).
Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga is different from many yoga classes in the west in that the order of poses is completely predefined. A practice will comprise four main parts: an "opening sequence," one of the six main "series", a back-bending sequence, and a set of inverted postures, referred to as the "finishing sequence." Practice always ends with savasana, or resting pose. The opening sequence begins with 10 Sun Salutations and then several standing postures. Next, the practitioner will do one of the six main series, referred to as the Primary series (Yoga Chikitsa), Intermediate series (Nadi Shodhana) or Advanced A, B, C, or D (Sthira Bhaga) series level. Newcomers to Ashtanga Yoga practice the primary series, after learning the standing sequence. The Primary Series is the most important series as it forms the basis of the entire system. Practitioners may advance to more difficult series over a period of years or decades, but the goal of this style is not to learn the more difficult poses but rather to learn to maintain internal focus throughout the practice.
Daily or regular practice is highly emphasized in Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. Ashtanga Yoga is traditionally taught in Mysore style
(supervised self practice, named after the city in India where Ashtanga originates), where each student moves through the practice at his or her own pace and level. An individual with an established Ashtanga practice might take between an hour and two hours, depending on his or her own personal speed, but a beginner will likely have a shorter practice. Yoga studios which teach Mysore practice are hard to find and these classes are often only taught by those authorized to teach by the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute. It is more common to find classes devoted to a specific series, often at a standardized pace, and guided by an instructor. However, even traditional Mysore-style teachers offer "led" classes either weekly or monthly.
, compiled by Vamana Rishi, which Krishnamacharya
received from his Guru Rama Mohan Brahmachari at Mount Kailash
in the early 20th century. In addition, there is evidence that the Ashtanga Vinyasa series incorporates exercises used by Indian wrestlers and British gymnastics. Recent academic research details documentary evidence that physical journals in the early 20th century were full of the postural shapes that were very similar to Krishnamacharya's
asana system. In particular, the flowing surya namaskar
which later became the basis of Krishnamacharya's
Mysore style, was not yet considered part of yogasana.
Krishnamacharya has had considerable influence on many of the modern forms of yoga taught today. Among his students were many notable present-day teachers such as K. Pattabhi Jois
, B.K.S. Iyengar
, Indra Devi
, and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar. Krishnamacharya was well known for tailoring his teachings to address specific concerns of the person or group he was teaching, and a vinyasa series for adolescents is a result of this. When working under the convalescing Maharaja
of Mysore, Krishnamacharya set up a shala
, or yoga school in the palace grounds and adapted the practice outlined in the Yoga Korunta for the young boys who lived there. Vinyasa has since been thought of as a physically demanding practice, which can be successful at channeling the hyperactivity of young minds. This system can also be used as a vessel for helping calm ongoing chatter of the mind, reducing stress and teaching extroverted personalities to redirect their attention to their internal experience.
outlined eight aspects—or "limbs"— of spiritual yogic practice in his Yoga Sutras:
The first four limbs—yama, niyama, asana and pranayama—are considered external cleansing practices. According to Pattabhi Jois, defects in these external practices are correctable while defects in the internal cleansing practices—pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi—are not. Pattabhi Jois thought these internal defects to be potentially dangerous to the mind unless the correct Ashtanga Yoga method was followed.
, or root lock, is performed by tightening the muscles around the pelvic and perineum
area. The Uḍḍīyāna Bandha
, often described as bringing the navel to the base of the spine, is a contraction of the muscles of the lower abdominal area – this bandha is considered the most important bandha as it supports our breathing and encourages the development of strong core muscles. Jālaṅdhara Bandha
, throat lock, is achieved by lowering the chin slightly while raising the sternum and the palate bringing the gaze to the tip of the nose.
There are, in total, nine drishtis that instruct the yoga student in directing his or her gaze. Each pose is associated with a particular drishti. They include:
mantra
:
which is roughly translated into English as:
and closes with the mangala mantra:
which is roughly translated into English as:
A more literal translation:
, an early student of Jois', is recognized as one of the creators of "power yoga". The term has caught on primarily in the West
where it is used to distinguish more vigorous asana
practices from gentler ones.
Beryl Bender Birch, another early student of Jois is also recognized as the founder of "power yoga" , and as the teacher who popularized Ashtanga in America. She wrote the books Power Yoga, Beyond Power Yoga and Boomer Yoga.
Popular schools of power yoga were founded by the following people:
Birch, Kest, and Schultz were all once students of K. Pattabhi Jois.
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
popularized by K. Pattabhi Jois
Sri K. Pattabhi Jois
Sri Krishna Pattabhi Jois was an Indian yoga teacher. He was a student of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, and taught at his school, the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute, in Mysore, India...
, and which is often promoted as a modern-day form of classical Indian yoga. Pattabhi Jois began his yoga studies in 1927 at the age of 12, and by 1948 had established an institute for teaching the specific yoga practice known as Ashtanga (Sanskrit for "eight-limbed") Yoga.
Power yoga is a generic term that may refer to any type of vigorous yoga exercise derived from Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga.
Principles
The term viṅyāsaVinyasa
Vinyasa , is a Sanskrit term often employed in relation to certain styles of yoga. The term vinyasa may be broken down into its Sanskritic roots to assist in decoding its meaning...
refers to the alignment of movement and breath, a method which turns static yoga postures into a dynamic flow. The length of one inhale or one exhale dictates the length of time spent transitioning between postures. Poses are then held for a predefined number of breaths. In effect, attention is placed on the breath and the journey between the postures rather than solely on achieving perfect body alignment in a pose, as is emphasized in Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidya , is a system of yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika....
.
The term vinyasa also refers to a specific series of movements that are frequently done between each pose in a series. This viṅyāsa 'flow' is a variant of Sūrya namaskāra
Surya Namaskara
Surya Namaskara , known in English as Sun Salutation , is a common sequence of Hatha yoga asanas. Its origins lie in a worship of Surya, the Hindu solar deity...
, the Sun Salutation, and is used in other styles of yoga beside Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. A standard viṅyāsa
Vinyasa
Vinyasa , is a Sanskrit term often employed in relation to certain styles of yoga. The term vinyasa may be broken down into its Sanskritic roots to assist in decoding its meaning...
consists (for example) of the flow from caturaṅga, or plank, to caturaṅga daṇḍāsana, or low plank, to ūrdhva mukha śvānāsana or upward-facing dog, to Adho Mukha Svanasana
Adho Mukha Svanasana
thumb|right|Downward-Facing DogAdho Mukha Svanasana, Adho Mukha Shvanasana , Downward-Facing Dog Pose, Downward Dog, or Down Dog, is an asana.- Etymology :...
, or downward-facing dog.
The breathing style used in Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga is Ujjayi
Ujjayi breath
Ujjayi breathing is a breath technique employed in a variety of Hindu and Taoist Yoga practices. In relation to Hindu Yoga, it is sometimes called "the ocean breath"...
which is a relaxed diaphragmatic style of breathing, characterized by an ocean sound which resonates in the practitioner's throat. Throughout a practice, this specific breathing style is maintained in alignment with movements. The steady cycle of inhales and exhales provides the practitioner with a calming, mental focal point. Additionally, viṅyāsa and Ujjayi together create internal heat, which leads to purification of the body through increased circulation and sweating.
Another major principle of Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga is the bandha
Bandha
Bandha is a Sanskrit term for "binding, bond, arrest, capturing, putting together" etc.It may refer to:*a technical term in Hatha Yoga, see Bandha *one of the tattvas in Jainism, see Bandha -See also:...
, or muscle locking/contraction, which focuses energy in the body and is closely tied to the breath. There are a variety of bandhas (see below).
Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga is different from many yoga classes in the west in that the order of poses is completely predefined. A practice will comprise four main parts: an "opening sequence," one of the six main "series", a back-bending sequence, and a set of inverted postures, referred to as the "finishing sequence." Practice always ends with savasana, or resting pose. The opening sequence begins with 10 Sun Salutations and then several standing postures. Next, the practitioner will do one of the six main series, referred to as the Primary series (Yoga Chikitsa), Intermediate series (Nadi Shodhana) or Advanced A, B, C, or D (Sthira Bhaga) series level. Newcomers to Ashtanga Yoga practice the primary series, after learning the standing sequence. The Primary Series is the most important series as it forms the basis of the entire system. Practitioners may advance to more difficult series over a period of years or decades, but the goal of this style is not to learn the more difficult poses but rather to learn to maintain internal focus throughout the practice.
Daily or regular practice is highly emphasized in Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. Ashtanga Yoga is traditionally taught in Mysore style
Mysore style
The Mysore style of yoga asana practice is a particular way of teaching yoga within the Ashtanga Yoga tradition as taught by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois in the southern Indian city of Mysore...
(supervised self practice, named after the city in India where Ashtanga originates), where each student moves through the practice at his or her own pace and level. An individual with an established Ashtanga practice might take between an hour and two hours, depending on his or her own personal speed, but a beginner will likely have a shorter practice. Yoga studios which teach Mysore practice are hard to find and these classes are often only taught by those authorized to teach by the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute. It is more common to find classes devoted to a specific series, often at a standardized pace, and guided by an instructor. However, even traditional Mysore-style teachers offer "led" classes either weekly or monthly.
History and legend
The Ashtanga Vinyasa series is said to have its origin in an ancient text called the Yoga KoruntaYoga Korunta
The Yoga Korunta is a purported ancient text on Yoga, transmitted by oral tradition to Tirumalai Krishnamacharya by his teacher Rama Mohan Brahmachari in the early 20th century, and further to Sri K...
, compiled by Vamana Rishi, which Krishnamacharya
Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya
Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya was an Indian yoga teacher, ayurvedic healer and scholar. Often referred to as "the father of modern yoga," Krishnamacharya is widely regarded as one of the most influential yoga teachers of the 20th century and is credited with the revival of hatha...
received from his Guru Rama Mohan Brahmachari at Mount Kailash
Mount Kailash
Mount Kailash is a peak in the Gangdisê Mountains, which are part of the Himalayas in Tibet...
in the early 20th century. In addition, there is evidence that the Ashtanga Vinyasa series incorporates exercises used by Indian wrestlers and British gymnastics. Recent academic research details documentary evidence that physical journals in the early 20th century were full of the postural shapes that were very similar to Krishnamacharya's
Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya
Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya was an Indian yoga teacher, ayurvedic healer and scholar. Often referred to as "the father of modern yoga," Krishnamacharya is widely regarded as one of the most influential yoga teachers of the 20th century and is credited with the revival of hatha...
asana system. In particular, the flowing surya namaskar
Surya Namaskara
Surya Namaskara , known in English as Sun Salutation , is a common sequence of Hatha yoga asanas. Its origins lie in a worship of Surya, the Hindu solar deity...
which later became the basis of Krishnamacharya's
Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya
Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya was an Indian yoga teacher, ayurvedic healer and scholar. Often referred to as "the father of modern yoga," Krishnamacharya is widely regarded as one of the most influential yoga teachers of the 20th century and is credited with the revival of hatha...
Mysore style, was not yet considered part of yogasana.
Krishnamacharya has had considerable influence on many of the modern forms of yoga taught today. Among his students were many notable present-day teachers such as K. Pattabhi Jois
Sri K. Pattabhi Jois
Sri Krishna Pattabhi Jois was an Indian yoga teacher. He was a student of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, and taught at his school, the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute, in Mysore, India...
, B.K.S. Iyengar
B.K.S. Iyengar
Bellur Krishnamachar Sundararaja Iyengar , is the founder of Iyengar Yoga, although he himself would not call it Iyengar Yoga. He is considered one of the foremost yoga teachers in the world and has been practising and teaching yoga for more than 75 years...
, Indra Devi
Indra Devi
Indra Devi ; May 12, 1899 - April 25, 2002) was an early disciple of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, and herself became a renowned yoga teacher. Born in Riga, she also acted in some Hindi films.-Early Years:...
, and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar. Krishnamacharya was well known for tailoring his teachings to address specific concerns of the person or group he was teaching, and a vinyasa series for adolescents is a result of this. When working under the convalescing Maharaja
Maharaja
Mahārāja is a Sanskrit title for a "great king" or "high king". The female equivalent title Maharani denotes either the wife of a Maharaja or, in states where that was customary, a woman ruling in her own right. The widow of a Maharaja is known as a Rajamata...
of Mysore, Krishnamacharya set up a shala
Shala
Shala is a Babylonian and Akkadian war goddess and a goddess of grain, the consort of the storm-god Adad. She carries a double-headed mace-scimitar embellished with lion heads. In the MUL.APIN, she is identified with the Virgo constellation, which was also known as "The Furrow"...
, or yoga school in the palace grounds and adapted the practice outlined in the Yoga Korunta for the young boys who lived there. Vinyasa has since been thought of as a physically demanding practice, which can be successful at channeling the hyperactivity of young minds. This system can also be used as a vessel for helping calm ongoing chatter of the mind, reducing stress and teaching extroverted personalities to redirect their attention to their internal experience.
Eight Limbs of Ashtanga
The sage PatanjaliPatañjali
Patañjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sūtras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. According to tradition, the same Patañjali was also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a commentary on Kātyāyana's vārttikas on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as an unspecified work of medicine .In...
outlined eight aspects—or "limbs"— of spiritual yogic practice in his Yoga Sutras:
| Sanskrit | English |
|---|---|
| Yama Yamas Yamas, and its complement, Niyamas, represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Hinduism and Yoga. These are a form of moral imperatives, commandments, rules or goals... |
moral codes |
| Niyama | self-purification and study |
| Asana Asana Asana is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, originally identified as a mastery of sitting still, with the spine as a conduit of biodynamic union... |
posture |
| Pranayama Pranayama Pranayama is a Sanskrit word meaning "extension of the prana or breath" or more accurately, "extension of the life force". The word is composed of two Sanskrit words, Prāna, life force, or vital energy, particularly, the breath, and "āyāma", to extend, draw out, restrain, or... |
breath control |
| Pratyahara Pratyahara Pratyahara or the 'withdrawal of the senses' is the fifth element among the Eight stages of Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga, as mentioned in his classical work, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali composed in the 2nd century BCE.... |
sense control |
| Dharana Dharana Dhāraṇā is translated as "collection or concentration of the mind ", or "the act of holding, bearing, wearing, supporting, maintaining, retaining, keeping back , a good memory", or "firmness, steadfastness, ... , certainty"... |
intention |
| Dhyana Dhyana in Hinduism According to the Hindu Yoga Sutra, written by Patanjali, dhyana is one of the eight limbs of Yoga, .... |
meditation Meditation Meditation is any form of a family of practices in which practitioners train their minds or self-induce a mode of consciousness to realize some benefit.... |
| Samadhi Samadhi Samadhi in Hinduism, Buddhism,Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools is a higher level of concentrated meditation, or dhyāna. In the yoga tradition, it is the eighth and final limb identified in the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali.... |
contemplation |
The first four limbs—yama, niyama, asana and pranayama—are considered external cleansing practices. According to Pattabhi Jois, defects in these external practices are correctable while defects in the internal cleansing practices—pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi—are not. Pattabhi Jois thought these internal defects to be potentially dangerous to the mind unless the correct Ashtanga Yoga method was followed.
Bandhas
There are three bandhas which are considered our internal body locks, prescribed in the different postures. The bandha is a sustained contraction of a group of muscles that assists the practitioner not only in retaining a pose but also in moving in and out of it. The Mūla BandhaMula Bandha
Mūla Bandha is a Sanskrit compound term: Mūla denotes "root", "base", "beginning", "foundation", "origin or cause", "basis", "source"; Bandha denotes "bondage", "fetter", "posture", "joining together", "catching hold of"....
, or root lock, is performed by tightening the muscles around the pelvic and perineum
Perineum
In human anatomy, the perineum is a region of the body including the perineal body and surrounding structures...
area. The Uḍḍīyāna Bandha
Uddiyana Bandha
Uddiyana bandha is the abdominal lock, one of the three internal locks or bandhas described and employed in hatha yoga...
, often described as bringing the navel to the base of the spine, is a contraction of the muscles of the lower abdominal area – this bandha is considered the most important bandha as it supports our breathing and encourages the development of strong core muscles. Jālaṅdhara Bandha
Jalandhara Bandha
Jalandhara Bandha , is the chin lock, one of the three internal locks or Bandhas described and employed in Hatha Yoga...
, throat lock, is achieved by lowering the chin slightly while raising the sternum and the palate bringing the gaze to the tip of the nose.
Drishtis
Drishti (dṛṣṭi), or focused gaze, is a means for developing concentrated intention. The most common is Ūrdhva, or upward gazing, where the eyes are lifted, with the spine aligned from crown to tailbone. This technique is employed in a variety of postures.There are, in total, nine drishtis that instruct the yoga student in directing his or her gaze. Each pose is associated with a particular drishti. They include:
- Aṅguṣṭha madhyai: to the thumb
- Bhrūmadhya: to the third eye, or between the eyebrows
- Nāsāgrai: at the tip of the nose (or a point six inches from the tip)
- Hastagrai: to the palm, usually the extended hand
- Pārśva: to the left/right side
- Ūrdhva: to the sky, or upwards
- Nābhicakra: to the navel
- Pādayoragrai: to the toes
Mantras
The Ashtanga practice is traditionally started with the following SanskritSanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
mantra
Mantra
A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
:
which is roughly translated into English as:
and closes with the mangala mantra:
which is roughly translated into English as:
A more literal translation:
"Power Yoga"
Larry SchultzLarry Schultz
Larry Schultz was an American Yoga teacher and icon. Schultz is primarily recognized as the creator of Rocket Yoga.-Early life:...
, an early student of Jois', is recognized as one of the creators of "power yoga". The term has caught on primarily in the West
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
where it is used to distinguish more vigorous asana
Asana
Asana is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, originally identified as a mastery of sitting still, with the spine as a conduit of biodynamic union...
practices from gentler ones.
Beryl Bender Birch, another early student of Jois is also recognized as the founder of "power yoga" , and as the teacher who popularized Ashtanga in America. She wrote the books Power Yoga, Beyond Power Yoga and Boomer Yoga.
Popular schools of power yoga were founded by the following people:
- Baron Baptiste, founder of Baptiste Power Vinyasa Yoga
- Beryl Bender Birch, based in New YorkNew YorkNew York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. - Bryan Kest, based in Los AngelesLos ÁngelesLos Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the commune of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...
. - Larry SchultzLarry SchultzLarry Schultz was an American Yoga teacher and icon. Schultz is primarily recognized as the creator of Rocket Yoga.-Early life:...
, creator of Rocket YogaRocket YogaRocket Yoga, also known as ‘’The Rocket’’, is a style of yoga developed by Larry Schultz in San Francisco during the 1980’s. Rocket Yoga is rooted in the Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga practice of yoga. It is combined with and restructured from the Primary and Intermediate Series of Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga...
.
Birch, Kest, and Schultz were all once students of K. Pattabhi Jois.
See also
- YogaYogaYoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
- Raja YogaRaja YogaRāja Yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using meditation to further one's acquaintance with reality and finally achieve liberation.Raja yoga was first described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and is part of the Samkhya tradition.In the context of Hindu...
- HinduismHinduismHinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
- PatanjaliPatañjaliPatañjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sūtras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. According to tradition, the same Patañjali was also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a commentary on Kātyāyana's vārttikas on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as an unspecified work of medicine .In...
- Yoga Sutras of PatanjaliYoga Sutras of PatanjaliThe Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 194 Indian sūtras that constitute the foundational text of Rāja Yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, and Rāja Yoga is the highest practice....
- Sri K. Pattabhi JoisSri K. Pattabhi JoisSri Krishna Pattabhi Jois was an Indian yoga teacher. He was a student of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, and taught at his school, the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute, in Mysore, India...