Auld Alliance
Encyclopedia
The Auld Alliance was an alliance between the kingdoms of Scotland
and France
. It played a significant role in the relations between Scotland, France and England
from its beginning in 1295 until the 1560 Treaty of Edinburgh
. The alliance was renewed by all the French and Scottish monarchs
of that period except for Louis XI. By the late 14th century, the renewal occurred regardless of whether either kingdom was involved in a conflict with England.
The alliance dates from the treaty signed by John Balliol and Philip IV of France
in 1295 against Edward I of England
. The terms of the treaty stipulated that if either country was attacked by England
, the other country would invade English territory, as became evident at the Battle of Flodden Field
, 1513. The alliance played an important role in conflicts between both countries and England, such as the Wars of Scottish Independence
, the Hundred Years' War
, the War of the League of Cambrai
and the Rough Wooing.
various assertions were made that the Franco-Scottish relationship began in the reign of Charlemagne
, the Auld Alliance is normally dated to 1295. However, historians such as J. D. Mackie
have dated it to 1173, when embassies between William I of Scotland
and Louis VII of France
supported a rebellion against the English king Henry II
. Elizabeth Bonner has also referred to talks of "informal cooperation" between the two countries at this time. An example of this was the invasion of England in 1215 led by Alexander II
in support of Robert FitzWalter
and the Dauphin Louis
, during the First Barons' War
.
In 1326, Robert the Bruce renewed the alliance, with the Treaty of Corbeil
. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the treaty was invoked six times.
Between 1331 and 1356, Edward III of England
defeated the kings of both countries. Bonner believes that the alliance meant that he did not succeed in subjugating them.
In 1336, at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War
, king Philip VI of France
provided military support for David II
, who fled to France after being deposed by Edward III of England
.
In 1346, under the terms of the Auld Alliance, Scotland invaded England in the interests of France
. However, they were defeated, and David II was taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross
.
The alliance was renewed
between the two kingdoms in 1371, with the embassy of the Bishop of Glasgow
and the Lord of Galloway to France. The treaty was signed by Charles V
at the Château de Vincennes
on 30 June, and at Edinburgh Castle
by Robert II
on 28 October.
French and Scottish forces together won against the English at the Battle of Baugé
in 1421. As it marked the turning point of the Hundred Years War, the significance of this battle was great. However, their victory was a short-lived one: at Verneuil
in 1424, the Scots army was defeated. Despite this defeat, the Scots had given France a valuable breathing space, effectively saving the country from English domination.
In addition, in 1429 Scots came to the aid of Joan of Arc
in her famous relief of Orléans
. Scottish soldiers also served in the Garde Écossaise
, the loyal bodyguard of the French monarchy. Many Scottish mercenaries chose to settle in France. Some were granted lands and titles in France.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, they became naturalised French subjects.
In 1558 the alliance between the two kingdoms was further strengthened by the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots to the future Francis II of France
.
However, in 1560, after more than 250 years, formal treaties between Scotland and France were officially ended by the Treaty of Edinburgh
. With the height of the Scottish Reformation
, Scotland was declared Protestant, and allied itself with Protestant England instead. 200 Scottish soldiers were sent to Normandy in 1562 to aid the French Huguenots in their struggle against royal authority during the French Wars of Religion
.
, law
, the Scots language
and cuisine
, due in part to Scottish soldiery within the French army. Part of the influence on law was due to Scots often going to French universities, something which continued up until the Napoleonic Wars
. Other intellectual influences from France continued into the 18th century as well. Examples of architectural influence include two Scottish castles built with French castle-building in mind: Bothwell
and Kildrummy
At the height of the alliance, French
was widely spoken in Scotland
and French
still has an influence on the Scots language
.
Despite all these exchanges of culture, the leading Scottish historian, J.B. Black, said of the alliance: "The Scot['s...] love for their 'auld' ally had never been a positive sentiment nourished by community of culture, but an artificially created affection based on the negative basis of hatred of England, and merely for the benefits brought by the philosophical theory that "the enemy of my enemy is my friend"."
The Garde Écossaise
, however, continued until 1830 when Charles X of France abdicated.
described the alliance between Scotland and France as "the oldest alliance in the world". He also declared that:
In 1995, celebrations were held in both countries for the 700th anniversary of the beginning of the alliance.
In 2011 the acknowledged British historian Dr Siobhan Talbott published the result of her diligent research on this matter and concluded accordingly that the Auld Alliance is actually unrevoked after all.
Kingdom of Scotland
The Kingdom of Scotland was a Sovereign state in North-West Europe that existed from 843 until 1707. It occupied the northern third of the island of Great Britain and shared a land border to the south with the Kingdom of England...
and France
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France was one of the most powerful states to exist in Europe during the second millennium.It originated from the Western portion of the Frankish empire, and consolidated significant power and influence over the next thousand years. Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, developed a...
. It played a significant role in the relations between Scotland, France and England
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England...
from its beginning in 1295 until the 1560 Treaty of Edinburgh
Treaty of Edinburgh
The Treaty of Edinburgh was a treaty drawn up on 5 July 1560 between the Commissioners of Queen Elizabeth I with the assent of the Scottish Lords of the Congregation, and French representatives in Scotland to formally conclude the Siege of Leith and replace the Auld Alliance with France with a new...
. The alliance was renewed by all the French and Scottish monarchs
Scottish Monarchs
The Scottish Monarchs were a motorcycle speedway team based in Glasgow, Scotland.At the end of the 1995 season, the Glasgow Tigers closed due a lack of finance and the Edinburgh Monarchs lost their home track, Powderhall Stadium, to redevelopment, leading to the Monarchs racing at Shawfield Stadium...
of that period except for Louis XI. By the late 14th century, the renewal occurred regardless of whether either kingdom was involved in a conflict with England.
The alliance dates from the treaty signed by John Balliol and Philip IV of France
Philip IV of France
Philip the Fair was, as Philip IV, King of France from 1285 until his death. He was the husband of Joan I of Navarre, by virtue of which he was, as Philip I, King of Navarre and Count of Champagne from 1284 to 1305.-Youth:A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born at the Palace of...
in 1295 against Edward I of England
Edward I of England
Edward I , also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons...
. The terms of the treaty stipulated that if either country was attacked by England
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England was, from 927 to 1707, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe. At its height, the Kingdom of England spanned the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain and several smaller outlying islands; what today comprises the legal jurisdiction of England...
, the other country would invade English territory, as became evident at the Battle of Flodden Field
Battle of Flodden Field
The Battle of Flodden or Flodden Field or occasionally Battle of Branxton was fought in the county of Northumberland in northern England on 9 September 1513, between an invading Scots army under King James IV and an English army commanded by the Earl of Surrey...
, 1513. The alliance played an important role in conflicts between both countries and England, such as the Wars of Scottish Independence
Wars of Scottish Independence
The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the independent Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries....
, the Hundred Years' War
Hundred Years' War
The Hundred Years' War was a series of separate wars waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou, for the French throne, which had become vacant upon the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings...
, the War of the League of Cambrai
War of the League of Cambrai
The War of the League of Cambrai, sometimes known as the War of the Holy League and by several other names, was a major conflict in the Italian Wars...
and the Rough Wooing.
History
Although during the Middle AgesMiddle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
various assertions were made that the Franco-Scottish relationship began in the reign of Charlemagne
Charlemagne
Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800...
, the Auld Alliance is normally dated to 1295. However, historians such as J. D. Mackie
J. D. Mackie
John Duncan Mackie CBE MC Hon. LLD was a distinguished Scottish historian who wrote a one-volume history of Scotland as well as several works on early modern Scotland....
have dated it to 1173, when embassies between William I of Scotland
William I of Scotland
William the Lion , sometimes styled William I, also known by the nickname Garbh, "the Rough", reigned as King of the Scots from 1165 to 1214...
and Louis VII of France
Louis VII of France
Louis VII was King of France, the son and successor of Louis VI . He ruled from 1137 until his death. He was a member of the House of Capet. His reign was dominated by feudal struggles , and saw the beginning of the long rivalry between France and England...
supported a rebellion against the English king Henry II
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
. Elizabeth Bonner has also referred to talks of "informal cooperation" between the two countries at this time. An example of this was the invasion of England in 1215 led by Alexander II
Alexander II of Scotland
Alexander II was King of Scots from1214 to his death.-Early life:...
in support of Robert FitzWalter
Robert Fitzwalter
Lord Robert FitzwalterAlso spelled FitzWalter, fitzWalter, etc. was the leader of the baronial opposition against King John of England, and one of the twenty-five sureties of the Magna Carta...
and the Dauphin Louis
Louis VIII of France
Louis VIII the Lion reigned as King of France from 1223 to 1226. He was a member of the House of Capet. Louis VIII was born in Paris, France, the son of Philip II Augustus and Isabelle of Hainaut. He was also Count of Artois, inheriting the county from his mother, from 1190–1226...
, during the First Barons' War
First Barons' War
The First Barons' War was a civil war in the Kingdom of England, between a group of rebellious barons—led by Robert Fitzwalter and supported by a French army under the future Louis VIII of France—and King John of England...
.
In 1326, Robert the Bruce renewed the alliance, with the Treaty of Corbeil
Treaty of Corbeil (1326)
The Treaty of Corbeil renewed the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France. It confirmed the obligation of each state to join the other in declaring war if either was attacked by England. The deputation from Scotland was led by Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray....
. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the treaty was invoked six times.
Between 1331 and 1356, Edward III of England
Edward III of England
Edward III was King of England from 1327 until his death and is noted for his military success. Restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II, Edward III went on to transform the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe...
defeated the kings of both countries. Bonner believes that the alliance meant that he did not succeed in subjugating them.
In 1336, at the beginning of the Hundred Years' War
Hundred Years' War
The Hundred Years' War was a series of separate wars waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou, for the French throne, which had become vacant upon the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings...
, king Philip VI of France
Philip VI of France
Philip VI , known as the Fortunate and of Valois, was the King of France from 1328 to his death. He was also Count of Anjou, Maine, and Valois from 1325 to 1328...
provided military support for David II
David II of Scotland
David II was King of Scots from 7 June 1329 until his death.-Early life:...
, who fled to France after being deposed by Edward III of England
Edward III of England
Edward III was King of England from 1327 until his death and is noted for his military success. Restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II, Edward III went on to transform the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe...
.
In 1346, under the terms of the Auld Alliance, Scotland invaded England in the interests of France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. However, they were defeated, and David II was taken prisoner at the Battle of Neville's Cross
Battle of Neville's Cross
The Battle of Neville's Cross took place to the west of Durham, England on 17 October 1346.-Background:In 1346, England was embroiled in the Hundred Years' War with France. In order to divert his enemy Philip VI of France appealed to David II of Scotland to attack the English from the north in...
.
The alliance was renewed
Treaty of Vincennes-Edinburgh
The Treaty of Vincennes-Edinburgh renewed the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France, fifty-five years after the Treaty of Corbeil . It confirmed the obligation of each state to join the other in declaring war if either was attacked by England...
between the two kingdoms in 1371, with the embassy of the Bishop of Glasgow
Walter Wardlaw
Walter Wardlaw was a 14th century bishop of Glasgow. He was the son of a Sir Henry Wardlaw of Torry, a middling knight of Fife. Before becoming bishop, Walter was a canon of Glasgow, a Master of Theology and archdeacon of Lothian. He was at the University of Paris, and a roll of the year 1349 has...
and the Lord of Galloway to France. The treaty was signed by Charles V
Charles V of France
Charles V , called the Wise, was King of France from 1364 to his death in 1380 and a member of the House of Valois...
at the Château de Vincennes
Château de Vincennes
The Château de Vincennes is a massive 14th and 17th century French royal castle in the town of Vincennes, to the east of Paris, now a suburb of the metropolis.-History:...
on 30 June, and at Edinburgh Castle
Edinburgh Castle
Edinburgh Castle is a fortress which dominates the skyline of the city of Edinburgh, Scotland, from its position atop the volcanic Castle Rock. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of early settlement is unclear...
by Robert II
Robert II of Scotland
Robert II became King of Scots in 1371 as the first monarch of the House of Stewart. He was the son of Walter Stewart, hereditary High Steward of Scotland and of Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert I and of his first wife Isabella of Mar...
on 28 October.
French and Scottish forces together won against the English at the Battle of Baugé
Battle of Baugé
The Battle of Baugé, fought between the English and the Franco-Scots on 21 March 1421 in Baugé, France, east of Angers, was a major defeat for the English in the Hundred Years' War...
in 1421. As it marked the turning point of the Hundred Years War, the significance of this battle was great. However, their victory was a short-lived one: at Verneuil
Battle of Verneuil
The Battle of Verneuil was a battle of the Hundred Years' War, fought on 17 August 1424 near Verneuil in Normandy and was a significant English victory.-The black time:...
in 1424, the Scots army was defeated. Despite this defeat, the Scots had given France a valuable breathing space, effectively saving the country from English domination.
In addition, in 1429 Scots came to the aid of Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc
Saint Joan of Arc, nicknamed "The Maid of Orléans" , is a national heroine of France and a Roman Catholic saint. A peasant girl born in eastern France who claimed divine guidance, she led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War, which paved the way for the...
in her famous relief of Orléans
Orléans
-Prehistory and Roman:Cenabum was a Gallic stronghold, one of the principal towns of the Carnutes tribe where the Druids held their annual assembly. It was conquered and destroyed by Julius Caesar in 52 BC, then rebuilt under the Roman Empire...
. Scottish soldiers also served in the Garde Écossaise
Garde Écossaise
The Garde Écossaise was an elite Scottish military unit founded in 1418 by the Valois Charles VII of France, to be personal bodyguards to the French monarchy. They were assimilated into the Maison du Roi and later formed the first Company of the Garde du Corps du Roi...
, the loyal bodyguard of the French monarchy. Many Scottish mercenaries chose to settle in France. Some were granted lands and titles in France.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, they became naturalised French subjects.
In 1558 the alliance between the two kingdoms was further strengthened by the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots to the future Francis II of France
Francis II of France
Francis II was aged 15 when he succeeded to the throne of France after the accidental death of his father, King Henry II, in 1559. He reigned for 18 months before he died in December 1560...
.
However, in 1560, after more than 250 years, formal treaties between Scotland and France were officially ended by the Treaty of Edinburgh
Treaty of Edinburgh
The Treaty of Edinburgh was a treaty drawn up on 5 July 1560 between the Commissioners of Queen Elizabeth I with the assent of the Scottish Lords of the Congregation, and French representatives in Scotland to formally conclude the Siege of Leith and replace the Auld Alliance with France with a new...
. With the height of the Scottish Reformation
Scottish Reformation
The Scottish Reformation was Scotland's formal break with the Papacy in 1560, and the events surrounding this. It was part of the wider European Protestant Reformation; and in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the re-establishment of the church along Reformed lines, and politically in...
, Scotland was declared Protestant, and allied itself with Protestant England instead. 200 Scottish soldiers were sent to Normandy in 1562 to aid the French Huguenots in their struggle against royal authority during the French Wars of Religion
French Wars of Religion
The French Wars of Religion is the name given to a period of civil infighting and military operations, primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants . The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise...
.
Wider influence
Although principally a military and diplomatic agreement, the alliance also extended into the lives of the Scottish population in a number of ways: including architectureArchitecture
Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art...
, law
Scots law
Scots law is the legal system of Scotland. It is considered a hybrid or mixed legal system as it traces its roots to a number of different historical sources. With English law and Northern Irish law it forms the legal system of the United Kingdom; it shares with the two other systems some...
, the Scots language
Scots language
Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster . It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language variety spoken in most of the western Highlands and in the Hebrides.Since there are no universally accepted...
and cuisine
Scottish cuisine
Scottish cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with Scotland. It has distinctive attributes and recipes of its own, but shares much with wider European cuisine as a result of foreign and local influences both ancient and modern...
, due in part to Scottish soldiery within the French army. Part of the influence on law was due to Scots often going to French universities, something which continued up until the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
. Other intellectual influences from France continued into the 18th century as well. Examples of architectural influence include two Scottish castles built with French castle-building in mind: Bothwell
Bothwell Castle
Bothwell Castle is a large medieval castle sited on a high, steep bank, above a bend in the River Clyde, in South Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is located between Uddingston and Bothwell, about south-east of Glasgow. Construction of the castle was begun in the 13th century by the ancestors of Clan...
and Kildrummy
Kildrummy Castle
Kildrummy Castle is a ruined castle near Kildrummy, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, United Kingdom. Though ruined, it is one of the most extensive castles of 13th century date to survive in eastern Scotland, and was the seat of the Earls of Mar....
At the height of the alliance, French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
was widely spoken in Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
and French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
still has an influence on the Scots language
Scots language
Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster . It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language variety spoken in most of the western Highlands and in the Hebrides.Since there are no universally accepted...
.
Despite all these exchanges of culture, the leading Scottish historian, J.B. Black, said of the alliance: "The Scot['s...] love for their 'auld' ally had never been a positive sentiment nourished by community of culture, but an artificially created affection based on the negative basis of hatred of England, and merely for the benefits brought by the philosophical theory that "the enemy of my enemy is my friend"."
After the Scottish Reformation
Certain provisions of the earlier treaty remained in force. In particular, under French law all Scots were still French citizens, until that right was revoked (but not retroactively) by the French government in 1906.The Garde Écossaise
Garde Écossaise
The Garde Écossaise was an elite Scottish military unit founded in 1418 by the Valois Charles VII of France, to be personal bodyguards to the French monarchy. They were assimilated into the Maison du Roi and later formed the first Company of the Garde du Corps du Roi...
, however, continued until 1830 when Charles X of France abdicated.
Legacy
In a speech which he delivered in Edinburgh in June 1942, Charles de GaulleCharles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969....
described the alliance between Scotland and France as "the oldest alliance in the world". He also declared that:
In every combat where for five centuries the destiny of France was at stake, there were always men of Scotland to fight side by side with men of France, and what Frenchmen feel is that no people has ever been more generous than yours with its friendship.
In 1995, celebrations were held in both countries for the 700th anniversary of the beginning of the alliance.
In 2011 the acknowledged British historian Dr Siobhan Talbott published the result of her diligent research on this matter and concluded accordingly that the Auld Alliance is actually unrevoked after all.
See also
- Acts of Union 1707Acts of Union 1707The Acts of Union were two Parliamentary Acts - the Union with Scotland Act passed in 1706 by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland - which put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706,...
- Anglo-Portuguese allianceAnglo-Portuguese AllianceThe Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, ratified at the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, between England and Portugal is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the world which is still in force — with the earliest treaty dating back to the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373.This alliance, which goes back to the...
- Duke of AubignyDuke of AubignyThe Scottish Dukes of Aubigny had their origins in Aubigny-sur-Nère, France, from the 15th century, which was an important honour throughout the Auld Alliance and Ancien Régime...
- Duke of LennoxDuke of LennoxThe title Duke of Lennox has been created several times in the Peerage of Scotland, for Clan Stewart of Darnley. The Dukedom, named for the district of Lennox in Stirling, was first created in 1581, and had formerly been the Earldom of Lennox. The second Duke was made Duke of Richmond; at his...
- Entente cordialeEntente CordialeThe Entente Cordiale was a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic. Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent...
(British-French agreement 1904) - Foreign alliances of FranceForeign alliances of FranceThe foreign alliances of France have a long and complex history spanning more than a millennium. One traditional characteristic of the French diplomacy of alliances has been the "Alliance de revers" The foreign alliances of France have a long and complex history spanning more than a millennium. One...
- France in the American Revolutionary WarFrance in the American Revolutionary WarFrance entered the American Revolutionary War in 1778, and assisted in the victory of the Americans seeking independence from Britain ....
- JacobitismJacobitismJacobitism was the political movement in Britain dedicated to the restoration of the Stuart kings to the thrones of England, Scotland, later the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Kingdom of Ireland...
- List of treaties
Sources
- Michel, F.X.Francisque Xavier MichelFrancisque Xavier Michel was a French historian and philologist.- Life :He became known for his editions of French works of the Middle Ages, and the French Government, recognizing their value, sent him to England and Scotland to continue his research there...
, Les Écossais en France, les Français en Écosse II vols. London 1862. (in French) http://www.archive.org/details/lesecossaisenfr04michgoog http://www.archive.org/details/lesecossaisenfr00michgoog
Further reading
- An Antidote to the English: The Auld Alliance, 1295-1560 by Norman MacdougallNorman MacdougallNorman Macdougall is a Scottish historian who is known for writing about Scottish crown politics. He was a senior lecturer in Scottish history at the University of St Andrews....
, ISBN 1862321450