Basque mythology
Encyclopedia
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
of the ancient Basques
Basque people
The Basques as an ethnic group, primarily inhabit an area traditionally known as the Basque Country , a region that is located around the western end of the Pyrenees on the coast of the Bay of Biscay and straddles parts of north-central Spain and south-western France.The Basques are known in the...
largely did not survive the, albeit late, arrival of Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
in the Basque Country
Basque Country (historical territory)
The Basque Country is the name given to the home of the Basque people in the western Pyrenees that spans the border between France and Spain on the Atlantic coast....
between the 4th and 12th century AD. Most of what is known about elements of this original belief system is based on the analysis of legends, the study of place names
Toponymy
Toponymy is the scientific study of place names , their origins, meanings, use and typology. The word "toponymy" is derived from the Greek words tópos and ónoma . Toponymy is itself a branch of onomastics, the study of names of all kinds...
and scant historical references to pagan rituals practised by the Basques.
One main figure of this belief system was the female character of Mari
Mari (goddess)
Mari, Mari Urraca, Anbotoko Mari and the possibly distinct Murumendiko Dama was a goddess — a lamia — of the Basques. She was married to the god Sugaar...
. According to legends collected in the area of Ataun
Ataun
Ataun is a town located at the foot of the Aralar Range in the Goierri region of the province of Gipuzkoa, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country, northern Spain.-External links:* *...
, the other main figure was her consort Sugaar
Sugaar
In Basque mythology, Sugaar is the male half of a pre-Christian Basque deity associated with storms and thunder. He is normally imagined as a dragon or serpent. Unlike his female consort, Mari, there are very few remaining legends about Sugaar...
. However, due to the scarcity of the material it is difficult to say if this would have been the "central pair" of the Basque pantheon
Pantheon (gods)
A pantheon is a set of all the gods of a particular polytheistic religion or mythology.Max Weber's 1922 opus, Economy and Society discusses the link between a...
. Based on the attributes ascribed to these mythological creatures, this would be considered a chthonic
Chthonic
Chthonic designates, or pertains to, deities or spirits of the underworld, especially in relation to Greek religion. The Greek word khthon is one of several for "earth"; it typically refers to the interior of the soil, rather than the living surface of the land or the land as territory...
religion as all its characters dwell on earth or below it, with the sky seen mostly as an empty corridor through which the divinities pass.
Christianity in the Basque Country
The Christianization of the Basque Country has been the topic of some discussion. Broadly speaking there are two views: either ChristianityChristianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th century, or this did not occur until the 12th and 13th century. The main issue lies in the different interpretations of what is considered Christianization. Early traces of Christianity can be found in the major urban areas from the 4th century onwards, a bishopric
Diocese
A diocese is the district or see under the supervision of a bishop. It is divided into parishes.An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese. An archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or had importance due to size or historical significance...
from 589 in Pamplona
Pamplona
Pamplona is the historial capital city of Navarre, in Spain, and of the former kingdom of Navarre.The city is famous worldwide for the San Fermín festival, from July 6 to 14, in which the running of the bulls is one of the main attractions...
and three hermit cave concentrations (two in Álava
Álava
Álava is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country, heir of the ancient Lord of Álava. Its capital city is Vitoria-Gasteiz which is also the capital of the autonomous community...
, one in Navarre
Navarre
Navarre , officially the Chartered Community of Navarre is an autonomous community in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Country, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and Aquitaine in France...
) were in use from the 6th century onwards. In this sense, Christianity arrived "early".
At the same time, various historical sources and research directly or indirectly bear witness to the fact that large-scale conversion did not begin to take place until the 10th and 11th century:
- the bishops of Pamplona were frequently absent from the Synods of Toledo during the VisigothVisigothThe Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, the Ostrogoths being the other. These tribes were among the Germans who spread through the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period...
period - reports of a failed mission by Bishop Amandus around 640 AD
- Arab authors from the time of the Umayyad conquest of HispaniaUmayyad conquest of HispaniaThe Umayyad conquest of Hispania is the initial Islamic Ummayad Caliphate's conquest, between 711 and 718, of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania, centered in the Iberian Peninsula, which was known to them under the Arabic name al-Andalus....
labeled the Basques as being mağūs or "wizards, pagans" - the famous cemetery of ArgiñetaElorrioElorrio is a town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country, northern Spain.-Geography:...
in Biscay from around 880 AD with Basque gravestonesHilarriHilarri is the name given to disk-shaped funerary steles that are typical of the Basque Country.These funerary steles present a disc-shaped head facing the rising sun on a trapezoidal stand...
totally devoid of any Christian symbols - the comparatively low density of religious centers in the Atlantic Basque Country until the 15th century
Most Vasconists broadly agree that Christianity thus arrived some time in the 4th/5th century. Serious missionary and religious activity only began in the 9th century from the kingdom of Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
and Franks
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
, and continued after the Reconquista
Reconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
with famous monastic foundations (Monastery of Leyre
Monastery of Leyre
The Monastery of San Salvador of Leyre is a religious complex at the south of the Sierra of Leyre, in northern Navarre, Spain, standing out as one of the most important historical monasteries of Spain. The oldest records of the site date from 842, when Íñigo Arista, held as first king of Pamplona,...
, San Millán de la Cogolla
San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja
San Millán de la Cogolla is a sparsely populated municipality in La Rioja, . It takes its name from a 6th-century saint who lived here, and from the shape of the surrounding mountains . The village is famous for its twin monasteries, Yuso and Suso, which were declared a World Heritage Site in 1997...
) and the diocese of Bayonne in the 11th century. Thus Christian and non-Christian beliefs lived side by side past the 10th and 11th century. Various traditions connected to this ancient belief system have survived partly by adapting a Christian veneer or by turning into folk traditions, as happened elsewhere in Europe.
However, in spite of the process of Christianization being completed late, the process was thorough and very little direct evidence remains of pre-Christian beliefs. For this reason research into the matter tends to be putative as it has to rely on the analysis of folklore, folk traditions, sketchy references and place-name evidence.
Historical sources
The main sources for information about non-Christian Basque beliefs are:- StraboStraboStrabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
who mentions the sacrifice of male goats and humans - Arab writers from the time of the Umayyad conquest of HispaniaUmayyad conquest of HispaniaThe Umayyad conquest of Hispania is the initial Islamic Ummayad Caliphate's conquest, between 711 and 718, of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania, centered in the Iberian Peninsula, which was known to them under the Arabic name al-Andalus....
- the 12th century diary of the pilgrim Aymeric PicaudAymeric PicaudAymeric Picaud was a 12th century French scholar, monk and pilgrim from Parthenay-le-Vieux in Poitou. He is most widely known today as being the author of the Codex Calixtinus, an illuminated manuscript giving background information for pilgrims travelling the Way of St. James...
- various medieval sources making references to pagan rituals, including the records of the inquisition
- 19th and 20th century collections of myths and folk-tales, for example by José Miguel BarandiaranJose Miguel BarandiaranJose Miguel Barandiaran Aierbe was a Basque Spanish anthropologist, ethnographer and priest.-Early life:He was born in 1889 as the youngest of nine children to Francisco Antonio Barandiaran and María Antonia Ayerbe in the family baserri Perune-Zarre in Ataun....
. This is by far the largest body of material relating to non-Christian beliefs and practices - the modern study of place-names in the Basque Country
Mythological creatures and characters
- AatxeAatxeAatxe is a spirit in the folk mythology of the Basque people. His name is literally translated as "Young Bull", and he is sometimes known as Etsai. He is a cave-dwelling spirit who adopts the form of a young red bull, but being a shapeshifter, sometimes takes the shape of a man. At night, more so...
: or Etsai is a cave-dwelling evil spirit who adopts the form of a young red bull, but being a shapeshifter, sometimes takes the shape of a man. - Atxular and Mikelatz are said to be sons of Mari, among others.
- BasajaunBasajaunIn Basque mythology, Basajaun is a huge, hairy creature dwelling in the woods who protects flocks of livestock and teaches skills such as agriculture and ironworking to humans.-References:...
: the wild manWoodwoseThe wild man is a mythical figure that appears in the artwork and literature of medieval Europe, comparable to the satyr or faun type in classical mythology and to Silvanus, the Roman god of the woodlands.The defining characteristic of the figure is its "wildness"; from the 12th century...
of the woods and his female version: basandere. - GaltzagorriakGaltzagorriakGaltxagorriak. In Basque mythology, galtzagorriak, meaning the red-pants, are a type of iratxoak or imps.According to the legend, a certain peasant who sought a way to do less work, was advised to go to certain shop of Bayonne and buy a box of galtzagorriak. He did that and, when he was back to his...
are a specific type of iratxoak (imps). - GauekoGauekoIn Basque mythology, Gaueko is a great black wolfhound that sometimes walks upright. He eats shepherds and their herds. He is called the “Lord of the Black Magic”. His howls can be heard on cold winter nights. In Basque, Gaueko literally means "of the night"....
is an evil character of the night. - HerensugeHerensugeHerensuge is the name for dragon in Basque language. In Basque mythology, dragons appear sparingly, sometimes with seven heads. Only the god Sugaar is associated with this creature but more often with a serpent....
is the name of a dragon who plays an important role in a few legends. - Erge is an evil spirit that takes men's lives.
- IlargiIlargiIlargi, Ile or Ilazki is the name of the Moon in Basque language. In Basque mythology, she is the daughter of Mother Earth, to whom it returns daily....
or Ile are the known names of the Moon, also a daughter of Ama Lur. - IratxoakIratxoakIratxoak are the imps of Basque mythology. Usually benevolent, they help with farming labors in the night if given presents of food.A particular category of iratxoak are the galtzagoriak....
: imps. - Jentilak (gentiles): giants, sometimes portrayed throwing rocks at churches. They are believed to be pagan Basques themselves, seen from a partly Christianized viewpoint. A surviving jentil is OlentzeroOlentzeroOlentzero is a Basque Christmas tradition. According to Basque traditions Olentzero comes to town late at night on the 24th of December to drop off presents for children...
, the Basque equivalent of Santa ClausSanta ClausSanta Claus is a folklore figure in various cultures who distributes gifts to children, normally on Christmas Eve. Each name is a variation of Saint Nicholas, but refers to Santa Claus...
. - Lami(n)ak, a type of nymphNymphA nymph in Greek mythology is a female minor nature deity typically associated with a particular location or landform. Different from gods, nymphs are generally regarded as divine spirits who animate nature, and are usually depicted as beautiful, young nubile maidens who love to dance and sing;...
with bird-feet that dwelt in rivers and springs. - Mairuak or Intxisuak are the male equivalent of lamiak in the Pyrenean region, where they are said to have built up the cromlechCromlechCromlech is a Brythonic word used to describe prehistoric megalithic structures, where crom means "bent" and llech means "flagstone". The term is now virtually obsolete in archaeology, but remains in use as a colloquial term for two different types of megalithic monument.In English it usually...
s. - MariMari (goddess)Mari, Mari Urraca, Anbotoko Mari and the possibly distinct Murumendiko Dama was a goddess — a lamia — of the Basques. She was married to the god Sugaar...
is considered the supreme goddess, and her consort SugaarSugaarIn Basque mythology, Sugaar is the male half of a pre-Christian Basque deity associated with storms and thunder. He is normally imagined as a dragon or serpent. Unlike his female consort, Mari, there are very few remaining legends about Sugaar...
the supreme god. Mari is depicted in many different forms: sometimes as various women, as different red animals, as the black he-goat, etc. Sugaar, however, appears only as a man or a serpent/dragon. Mari is said to be served by the sorginakSorginakSorginak are the assistants of the goddess Mari in Basque mythology. It is also the Basque name for witches or pagan priestesses , being difficult to discern between the mythological and real ones.Sometimes sorginak are confused with lamiak...
, semi-mythical creatures impossible to differentiate from actual witches or paganPaganismPaganism is a blanket term, typically used to refer to non-Abrahamic, indigenous polytheistic religious traditions....
priestPriestA priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
esses. The cadre of witches near ZugarramurdiZugarramurdiZugarramurdi is a town and municipality located in the province and autonomous community of Navarre, northern Spain. It passed into history as the setting of the infamous Basque witch trials. Every year in spectacular caves near Zugarramundi the town celebrate the ‘day of the witch’.-External...
met at the Akelarre field and were the target of the Spanish Inquisition's largest witch huntBasque witch trialsThe Basque witch trials of the 17th century represent the most ambitious attempt at rooting out witchcraft ever undertaken by the Spanish Inquisition...
at LogroñoLogroñoLogroño is a city in northern Spain, on the Ebro River. It is the capital of the autonomous community of La Rioja, formerly known as La Rioja Province.The population of Logroño in 2008 was 153,736 and a metropolitan population of nearly 197,000 inhabitants...
. As a result, akelarre in Basque and aquelarre in Spanish are today still the local names of the sabbatSabbath (witchcraft)The Witches' Sabbath or Sabbat is a supposed meeting of those who practice witchcraft, and other rites.European records indicate cases of persons being accused or tried for taking part in Sabbat gatherings, from the Middle Ages to the 17th century or later.- Etymology :The English word “sabbat”...
. - OdeiOdeiOdei / Hodei. In Basque mythology, Odei is a genie of thunder and the personification of storm clouds....
is a personification of storm clouds. - San Martin TxikiSan Martin TxikiSan Martin Txiki is the Trickster figure from Basque mythology. "Txiki" means "little" in an affectionate sense. San Martin is often called simply "Martintxiki" or "Samartitxiki". He stole the secrets of planting, sowing, and harvesting from the Basajaunak...
, a popular local Christian character, is a tricksterTricksterIn mythology, and in the study of folklore and religion, a trickster is a god, goddess, spirit, man, woman, or anthropomorphic animal who plays tricks or otherwise disobeys normal rules and conventional behavior. It is suggested by Hansen that the term "Trickster" was probably first used in this...
. - SorginakSorginakSorginak are the assistants of the goddess Mari in Basque mythology. It is also the Basque name for witches or pagan priestesses , being difficult to discern between the mythological and real ones.Sometimes sorginak are confused with lamiak...
are both mythological beings that travel with Mari and real witches. - TartaloTartaloIn Basque mythology, Tartalo is an enormously strong one-eyed giant very similar to the Greco-Roman Cyclops. It is speculated that the name may derive from the Greek underworld Tartaros. He lives in caves in the mountains and catches young people in order to eat them. He also eats sheep. In Biscay,...
: the Basque version of the Greco-Roman CyclopsCyclopsA cyclops , in Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, was a member of a primordial race of giants, each with a single eye in the middle of his forehead...
.
The Urtzi controversy
Urtzi may or may not have been a Basque mythological figure. There is evidence that can be read as either supporting or contradicting the existence of such a deity. To date neither theory has been able to convince fully.Myths of the historical period
After Christianization, the Basques kept producing and importing myths.- Jaun ZuriaJaun ZuriaJaun Zuria is the mythical first Lord of Biscay. According to the legend, he was born from a Scottish princess that had been visited by god Sugaar in the village of Mundaka....
is the mythical first Lord of Biscay, said to be born of a ScottishScotlandScotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
princess who had an encounter with the god Sugaar in the village of MundakaMundakaMundaka is a town and municipality located in the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of Basque Country, northern Spain. On the coast, Mundaka is internationally-renowned for its surfing scene....
. - The battle of Roncesvalles was mythified in the cycle of the Matter of FranceMatter of FranceThe Matter of France, also known as the Carolingian cycle, is a body of literature and legendary material associated with the history of France, in particular involving Charlemagne and his associates. The cycle springs from the Old French chansons de geste, and was later adapted into a variety of...
. - In the Aralar RangeAralar RangeAralar aran'+'larre', meaning 'valley field') is the Basque name for a mountain range, which broadly speaking separates the province of Gipuzkoa from Navarre in the North of Spain...
, Saint Michael was said to appear to assist a local noble turned hermit. - The coat of arms of Navarre was said to come from a feat in the battle of Las Navas de TolosaBattle of Las Navas de TolosaThe Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, known in Arab history as the Battle of Al-Uqab , took place on 16 July 1212 and was an important turning point in the Reconquista and in the medieval history of Spain...
. - The battle of Amaiur was the battle where NavarreNavarreNavarre , officially the Chartered Community of Navarre is an autonomous community in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Country, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and Aquitaine in France...
lost its independence to the Crown of CastileCrown of CastileThe Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
.