Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale in 1987/88 was an important episode in the Angolan Civil War
(1975 to 2002). Between 9 September and 7 October 1987, the Angolan Army (FAPLA), in an attempt to finally subdue the Angolan insurgent movement UNITA
in south-eastern Angola, was decisively repelled in a series of battles at the Lomba River between by the South Africa
n Army (SADF), which had once more intervened on UNITA’s behalf. With FAPLA retreating to their starting point at Cuito Cuanavale
, the SADF and UNITA went on the offensive and started the siege
by shelling Cuito with long-range artillery on 14 October. A major battle ensued and Angola, fearing a defeat, requested help from Cuba
. With Cuban reinforcements, Cuito was held and the South African advance ended after six unsuccessful attempts to overcome the FAPLA-Cuban defences between 13 January and 23 March 1988. The SADF withdrew but continued to shell Cuito from a distance.
(with its armed wing FAPLA), led by Agostinho Neto
; the conservative FNLA, led by Holden Roberto
and supported by Mobutu Sese Seko
of Zaïre
; and UNITA
, led by Jonas Savimbi
(a former Maoist who broke away from the FNLA, later sponsored by the CIA and South Africa).
After the Carnation Revolution
of April 1974 in Portugal, the new revolutionary government of Portugal
let go of Portugal's African overseas possessions, including Angola. The Treaty of Alvor
comprised a series of agreements between the three rebel factions and Portugal that were to pave the way to independence. Under its terms, a transitional government was formed, elections were scheduled for the end of the year, and 11 November 1975 was slated as Angola's independence day.
Fighting between the three rebel factions started soon after the transitional government took office on 31 January 1975, with each movement gaining control of their traditional areas of influence by mid-1975: The MPLA in the capital and central Angola, the FNLA in the north and UNITA in the south.
), a territory adjoining Angola to the south, and extending apartheid rule. 1966 saw the beginning of the armed resistance by the Southwest African liberation movement SWAPO and South African counter insurgency. After Angola’s independence in 1975, SWAPO gained the support of the Angolan government and operated against the South African forces from bases in Southern Angola. Thus, in the Angolan civil war, UNITA had become a welcome and valuable ally to South Africa in its fight against SWAPO.
On 9 August the South African Army (SADF) secured the Ruacana
hydro-electric complex on the border with Namibia after engineers were prevented from moving freely by an unruly and ill-disciplined UNITA force; on 14 October South Africa launched Operation Savanah in support of UNITA and FNLA advancing on Luanda and coming within 200 km of the city. The FNLA, supported by Zairian units, South Africans and Portuguese mercenaries advanced on Luanda from the east and got as far as Kifangondo. On 7 November Cuba launched Operation Carlota, intervening in favour of the MPLA (see Cuba in Angola) with up to 30.000 troops. This enabled the MPLA to hold Luanda and on 11 November Agostinho Neto
proclaimed the independence of Angola.
struggle between the Soviet Union
and the United States
. Both superpower
s tried to influence the outcome of the civil war through proxies
.
The African liberation movements, which also opposed apartheid in South Africa, found mainly support in socialist countries. Angola and SWAPO were basically supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union and some countries of the Eastern bloc while the West, foremost the United States
supported South Africa, albeit clandestinely, and their ally, UNITA.
After the Cubans had helped the MPLA gain power in 1975 they found it necessary to stay in the country until conditions stabilized.
The Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc
countries supplied the Angolan army (FAPLA) with armament, advisors and specialized technical staff.
UNITA managed to rebound and, with South African and US support, posed a threat to the Angolan government. UNITA also received backing from the US allies, most notably in the form of Stinger missiles
that helped repel the air superiority of the FAPLA forces. While the U.S. helped with money and weaponry, South Africa sent around 5000 troops in aid.
South Africa's interests lay in preventing the Angolan government from gaining control of south-eastern Angola and in UNITA keeping hold of the territory as a buffer zone. Angola bordered on South African occupied Namibia
(at the time called South West Africa
). UNITA and South African control of southern Angola would make it difficult for SWAPO to fight for Namibian independence from bases in Angola.
The South African government's strategic concern was to ensure continued UNITA control over regions bordering Namibia, so as to prevent the SWAPO guerrillas from receiving Angolan support and gaining a springboard in southern Angola from which to launch attacks into Southwest Africa. It’s security strategy was shaped by the doctrines of pre-emptive interventionism and counter-revolutionary warfare.
After South Africa had been unable to prevent the leftist MPLA, which it viewed as a Soviet surrogate, from taking power in Angola in 1975, it regarded the country as a threat to its security. This view was only confirmed by the deployment of Cuban troops in Angola. Therefore the apartheid regime's goal was to overthrow and replace the MPLA-government in Luanda with a ‘friendly’ and anti-Communist one. It actively supported the "de facto" secession of Southern Angola and, in 1979, decided to install the UNITA as its "de facto" government. After South African operation "Protea" in August 1981, in which it occupied 50.000 km² of Cunene province, UNITA took effective administrative control of most of Cunene in January 1982.
In 1987, as part of the Angolan government's repeated campaigns against UNITA and for the control of south-eastern Angola, the Angolan army launched campaign Operação Saludando Octubre to rout UNITA forces from their stronghold cities of Mavinga
, a former Portuguese military base and Jamba in the southeast of the country just above the Caprivi Strip
. As in the previous ones, planning and leadership was taken over by the Soviets and the higher ranks in the units were taken over by Soviet officers. General Konstantin Shaganovitch would command the Angolan forces in the battle. Soviet command did not include the Cuban forces in Angola and the Cubans initially did not actively engage in combat but only took over support functions. FAPLA's equipment was upgraded including 150 T-55
and T-62
tanks and Mi-24 helicopters. The Soviets dismissed the advice of the Cubans, as in the campaigns before, who warned that the operation would create another opportunity for a South African intervention. It was decided to commence the attack from Cuito Cuanavale
.
Taking notice of the massive military build-up, South Africa warned UNITA. The Angolan campaign was initially successful and made considerable gains into south-eastern Angola. The South African government became aware that UNITA would not be able to withhold the onslaught. On 15 June it decided to intervene and authorized covert support. On 4 August 1987 the SADF launched Operation Moduler
which was to stop the Angolan advance on Mavinga. The SADF 61 Mechanized Battalion crossed into Angola from their base at the border town of Rundu
.
, including MiG 23
s deployed in a ground-attack role.
Facing them were the UNITA forces composed of the 3rd Regular, 5th Regular, 13th Semi-Regular and 275th Special Forces Battalions On 28 August they reached the northern banks of the Lomba River near Mavinga, where they were expected by the SADF.
In a series of bitter fights (Battle of the Lomba River II) between 9 September and 7 October, SADF and UNITA prevented the FAPLA, which suffered heavy losses, from crossing the river. The Soviets withdrew their advisors and left the FAPLA without senior leadership.
On 29 September, South African and UNITA forces, having gained the upper-hand, launched an offensive (Operation Hooper
). On 3 October they attacked and annihilated a FAPLA-battalion on the southern banks of the Lomba River near Mavinga and two days later the Angolan army headed into a retreat over 190 km back to Cuito Cuanavale, which it desperately held on to.
If Cuito Cuanavale was lost by FAPLA, the next closest comparable outpost would be Menongue
, 300 km from Mavinga and 500 km from UNITA's headquarters at Jamba. In pursuit of the retreating FAPLA units the SADF and UNITA started the siege of Cuito Cuanavale on 14 October with long-range shelling by 155 mm artillery
from a distance of 30 to 40 km.
The quite demoralised 59th FAPLA motorised infantry brigade, 21st and 25th FAPLA light infantry brigades, in positions near Tumpo and east of the Cuito River, were effectively cut off due to SADF artillery control of both the bridge and airstrip and to UNITA guerrilla control of the road from Menongue, which they had mined and were prepared to ambush. With no functioning armour or artillery remaining, the FAPLA-units faced annihilation.
On 15 November, the Angolan government requested urgent military assistance from Cuba.
Although not responsible for the dismal situation of the FAPLA Cuba felt impelled to intervene in order to prevent a total disaster for the Angolans. In Castro's view, a South African victory would have meant not only the capture of Cuito and the destruction of the best Angolan military formations, but, quite probably, the end of Angola's existence as an independent country. Thus, Fidel Castro
responded immediately by sending — in what was called "Maniobra XXXI Aniversario de las FAR" — materiel
and 15 000 elite troops, retaking the initiative from the Soviets.
The first Cuban reinforcements in Cuito arrived by helicopter on 5 December with about 160–200 technicians, advisers, officers, and special forces.
General Arnaldo Ochoa
, a veteran of the 1976 Angola campaign and of tank battles in Ethiopia, was made overall commander of the forces on the government side. Ochoa and Castro were to have serious disagreements in the conduct of the war in Angola. These tensions were to have repercussions both during the war where Castro's interference with defense plans may have cost the Cubans dozens of lives and in the aftermath of Angolan hostilities a year later when Ochoa was arrested, tried and executed by firing squad after being found guilt of treason. General Cintras Frias was made commander at Cuito Cuanavale.
The Cuban's initial priority was securing Cuito Cuanavale, but while enforcements were arriving at the besieged garrison they made preparations for a second front to the west of Cuito Cuanavale in Lubango
where the SADF had been operating unhindered for 8 years.
On 25 November the UN Security Council demanded the SADF's unconditional withdrawal from Angola by 10 December, yet, without threatening any sanctions. Through December the situation for the besieged Angolans became critical as the SADF tightened the noose around Cuito Cuanavale. Observers expected it to fall into South African hands any time soon and UNITA prematurely announced the town had been taken.
As of 21 December the SADF planned the final assault "pick off" the FAPLA units which were still caught to the east of the Cuito river "before moving in to occupy the town if the conditions were favourable".
On 9 January the SADF destroyed the important bridge across the Cuito river using a smart bomb
. The Cubans managed to construct a wooden footbridge in its place which they baptised Patria o Muerte (fatherland or death).) They partly buried disabled tanks so that their turrets could be used as fixed artillery pieces.
The SADF brought up reinforcements and then carried out, beginning 13 January until 23 March, the first of what would prove to be six major ground assaults on the entrenched FAPLA positions east of the river, none of which delivered tangible results. A large Cuban and FAPLA column was on the way from Menongue for the relief of Cuito Cuanavale, but progress in the rainy season was slow due to the need to clear the UNITA minefields and guard against possible ambushes. They did not reach Cuito Cuanavale in time to take part in the first engagement.
Although the first attack on 13 January 1988 was successful, spelling near disaster for a FAPLA brigade, the SADF unable to continue withdrew to its starting positions. A month later, on 14 February, the SADF withdrew from a second assault after successfully driving FAPLA-Cuban units off the Chambinga high ground. Close to a catastrophe, the FAPLA units east of the Cuito River withdrew to the Tumpo (river) triangle, a smaller area, ideally suited to defence. In a third assault on 19 February the SADF suffered a first major setback when it was repelled by FAPLA battalion north of the Dala river; unable to reach FAPLA's forward positions the SADF had to withdraw. In the following days the Cubans stepped up their air attacks against South African positions. On 25 February the FAPLA-Cubans repelled a fourth assault and the SADF had to return to its positions east of the Tumpo River. The failure of this attack "proved a turning point of the battle of Cuito Cuanavale, boosting FAPLA's flagging morale and bringing the South African advance to a standstill." A fifth SADF-attack was beaten back on 29 February delivering a third consecutive defeat. After some more preparation the South Africans launched their last and fourth unsuccessful attack on 23 March. As SADF-Colonel Jan Breytenbach wrote, the South African assault "was brought to a grinding and definite halt" by the combined Cuban and Angolan forces.
Eventually Cuban troop strength in Angola increased to about 55,000, with 40,000 deployed in the south. Due to the international arms embargo
since 1977, South Africa’s aging air force was outclassed by sophisticated Soviet-supplied air defence systems and air-strike capabilities fielded by the Cubans and Angolans and it was unable to uphold the air supremacy it had enjoyed for years; its loss in turn proved to be critical to the outcome of the battle on the ground. The Cuito airstrip was kept in repair, but since it was under constant observation by the SADF artillery and air force it could not be safely used by fixed wing aircraft.
After the failed assault on 23 March 1988 under orders from Pretoria the SADF withdrew the bulk of their forces, initially leaving a 1,500-man "holding force" behind (Combat Group 20) to continue deception operations and lay mines in order to prevent or slow any FAPLA offensive operations. For months it continued to shell Cuito Cuanavale and the airstrip using their long-range G-5 artillery
from a distance of 30 to 40 km.
While the Cubans had purported to be moving south into Namibia according to comments from Castro they instead moved to cut off elements of the SADF. The SADF had left much of its powerful G-5 artillery units in place due to the difficulty in transporting during the rainy season. For whatever reasons—possibly not wanting to upset strategic negotiations, willingness to risk casualties or similar difficulties with mechanized forces—the Cubans did not attempt to take the SADF positions and settled for surrounding the small force.
With that manoeuvre, Fidel Castro increased the cost to South Africa of continuing to fight in Angola and placed Cuba in its most aggressive combat position of the war, thus fortifying his present argument that he is preparing to leave Angola with his opponents on the defensive.
for anti-aircraft defense. The South Africans were hampered by an international arms embargo which prevented them from acquiring more modern aircraft. The Cubans and FAPLA were armed with Soviet weaponry.
Trucks used by FAPLA
Engesa-15, Engesa-25, Engesa-50 (Brazilian)
Mercedes (West Germany)
Pegaso (Spain)
IFAW50 (GDR)
GAZ-66, ZIL-131, URAL-375/URAL-4320
GAZ-51 and GAZ-63 (were used by Cubans outside Cuito)
KAMAZ and ZIL-130 (civil trucks): ZIL-157 (all were used outside Cuito)
Jeeps
UAZ-469
UAZ-69 (GAZ-69) (used by Cubans outside Cuito)
Niva
Land Rover 109
Land Rover 110
Land Rover Defender
Miniubuses
RAF-2203 and UAZ-452
Pistols
Walther P38
TT-33 (TT)
MP (Makarov)
APS (Stechkin)
Beretta 92
(Lubango
) with a force of 40,000 Cuban troops and a 30,000 of Angolan forces, and with support from MiG-23 fighter bombers. The first South African resistance was encountered near Calueque on 15 March, followed by three months of bloody clashes as the Cubans slowly progressed towards the Namibian border.
On 9 March 1988, the Angolans, now joined by the Cubans, entered into the first round of US-brokered peace negotiations. On 3 May 1988 the South Africans returned to the peace negotiations which they had abandoned two years before.
On 26 May, the chief of the SADF announced that heavily armed Cuban and SWAPO forces had moved south within 60 km (37.3 mi) of the Namibian border. The remaining SADF forces at Cuito Cuanavale Combat Group 20 was left in place to construct minefields and carry out deception operations in order to prevent a FAPLA offensive. A number of skirmishes occurred while the SADF forces were disengaging, most notably Operation Hilti/Excite. In response to this 32 Battalion inserted an intelligence team under the command of Capt. Herman Mulder, who set up a tactical HQ at Ruacana
, supporting two teams doing reconnaissance south-each of Techipa along the Devangulu Mountains; with the second team operating in the Handa Rotunda area. After gathering the required intelligence Operation Hilti/Excite was initiated on 13 June with the deployment of one company from 61 Mechanized Battalion at Dongue, 25 km (15.5 mi) south-west of Xangongo
. An attack was also laucnhed against Ongiva by 32 Battalion. G5 and G2 artillery pieces were provided to 61 Mechanized Battalion and they engaged the Cuban 50th Division based at Ongiva. A fierce skirmish took place at Cuamato and 201 Battalion lost one vehicle but held the town on 24 June 1988. Operation Displace was launched and became the last significant hot engagement of the entire war at Techipa on 26 June. A running fire fight happened when a platoon from 32 Battalion was engaged in an action that took place over a 20 km (12.4 mi) distance. On 27 June 61 Mechanized Battalion engaged a Cuban tank squadron before they crossed the Cunene River back into Namibia. The MiG-23s lost their tactical advantage for some unknown reason and bombed Calueque Dam, causing the last loss of life in that conflict when they kill 10 soldiers from 8 SAI. Two MiG-23s were damaged by ground fire. On 8 June 1988, hoping to send a strong message to the Cubans that they would respond to any movement into South-West Africa the South African government called up 140,000 men of the reserves (Citizen Force). This was known as Operation Desert Fox and it consisted of 81 Armoured Brigade, which positioned itself on 30 July 1988 just south of Ruacana, tasked with the responsibility of neutralizing the very aggressive Cuban 50th Brigade if need be. The signing of the formal peace treaty at Ruacana on 22 August 1988 meant that Operation Desert Fox could be aborted.
By the end of May, Cuba had two divisions in south-western Angola. By June, they constructed two forward airbases at Cahama
and Xangongo
with which Cuban air power could be projected into Namibia. All of southern Angola was covered by a radar network and SA-8 air defence ending South African air superiority.
In June 1988, the Cubans prepared to advance on Calueque starting from Xangongo and Tchipa. In case of serious South African counter attacks, they were prepared to destroy the Ruacana reservoirs and transformers and attack South African bases in Namibia. The offensive started from Xangongo on June 23 immediately clashing with the SADF en route to Cuamato. An SADF screening force encountered the Cuban advance in a firefight resulting in the withdrawal of the SADF force and the decision of the FAPLA-Cubans to return to their base. On 26 June the SADF conducted Operation Excite to test Cuban forces in the area. The SADF sent up decoys to provoke SAM sites into revealing their positions and shelled Tchipa with long-range artillery effectively destroying the Cuban's ability to utilize their own artillery. A series of firefights ensued with SADF tanks launching a spoiling attack on the initial gathering armor forces then withdrawing fearing being overwhelmed by Cuban reinforcements.
Cuban MiGs carried out the attacks on the SADF positions around the Calueque dam, 11 km (6.8 mi) north of the Namibian border, also damaging the bridge and hydroelectric installations. The major force of the Cubans, still on the way, never saw action and returned to Tchipa. With the withdrawal of the SADF into Namibia an 27 June the hostilities ceased.
The South Africans, impressed by the suddenness and scale of the Cuban advance and believing that a major battle "involved serious risks" withdrew. For their part the Cubans were shocked at the heavy casualties they had suffered and put their troops on alert to expect a strong South African response. Five days later Pretoria ordered Combat Group 20 which was still operational east of Cuito Cuanavale to scale back to avoid any more casualties, effectively withdrawing from all fighting, and a SADF division was deployed in defence of Namibia's northern border.
At the bargaining table the South Africans agreed to withdraw from Angola by 1 September 1988 and to the implementation of Resolution 435 for Southwest Africa on 1 November, leading to the independence of Namibia. This agreement was based on intelligence that indicated the Soviet Union would no longer sustain surrogate forces in the Third World, and that Cuba was starting to take strain from the mounting casualties. The Cubans in return would pull troops out of Angola by 1 July 1991. A peace accord
, mediated
by Chester Crocker
, was finally signed on 22 December 1988 in New York.
Nelson Mandela
considered the FAPLA-Cuban success at Cuito and in Lubango a turning point in the Angolan civil war as well as in the struggle for Namibian independence. The battle at Cuito, raging for 6 months, was the biggest battle on African soil since World War II
". The casualties were high, especially on the Angolan side; in its course around 20,000 soldiers were killed.
Claims of victory in this battle have been made from all sides, depending on the military, political or moral point of view. It was a clear-cut military victory that South Africa and UNITA repelled the Angolan offensive at the Lomba River and went on the counter offensive, also in terms of human and material losses. According to veteran reporter Max du Preez
, the SADF "fared a lot better than the Cubans expected or were later prepared to admit."
The war cost an estimated half a million lives and devastated Angola's infrastructure until the conflict finally ended after Savimbi was shot by government forces in 2002.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale is commemorated in several countries in Southern Africa. The 20th anniversary in 2008 was especially celebrated in Namibia.
Angolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War was a major civil conflict in the Southern African state of Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. Prior to this, a decolonisation conflict had taken...
(1975 to 2002). Between 9 September and 7 October 1987, the Angolan Army (FAPLA), in an attempt to finally subdue the Angolan insurgent movement UNITA
UNITA
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the Angolan War for Independence and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war .The war was one...
in south-eastern Angola, was decisively repelled in a series of battles at the Lomba River between by the South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
n Army (SADF), which had once more intervened on UNITA’s behalf. With FAPLA retreating to their starting point at Cuito Cuanavale
Cuito Cuanavale
Cuito Cuanavale is a town and municipality in Cuando Cubango province in Angola. The names Kuito Kuanavale or Kwito Kwanavale are sometimes used, although this is a mutation of the original Portuguese name....
, the SADF and UNITA went on the offensive and started the siege
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
by shelling Cuito with long-range artillery on 14 October. A major battle ensued and Angola, fearing a defeat, requested help from Cuba
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
. With Cuban reinforcements, Cuito was held and the South African advance ended after six unsuccessful attempts to overcome the FAPLA-Cuban defences between 13 January and 23 March 1988. The SADF withdrew but continued to shell Cuito from a distance.
Independence from Portugal
For 13 years until 1974, three armed groups fought for Angola's independence from Portugal: the leftist MPLAPopular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Labour Party is a political party that has ruled Angola since the country's independence from Portugal in 1975...
(with its armed wing FAPLA), led by Agostinho Neto
Agostinho Neto
António Agostinho Neto served as the first President of Angola , leading the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the war for independence and the civil war...
; the conservative FNLA, led by Holden Roberto
Holden Roberto
Holden Álvaro Roberto founded and led the National Liberation Front of Angola from 1962 to 1999. His memoirs are unfinished.-Early life:...
and supported by Mobutu Sese Seko
Mobutu Sese Seko
Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga , commonly known as Mobutu or Mobutu Sese Seko , born Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, was the President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 1997...
of Zaïre
Zaire
The Republic of Zaire was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between 27 October 1971 and 17 May 1997. The name of Zaire derives from the , itself an adaptation of the Kongo word nzere or nzadi, or "the river that swallows all rivers".-Self-proclaimed Father of the Nation:In...
; and UNITA
UNITA
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the Angolan War for Independence and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war .The war was one...
, led by Jonas Savimbi
Jonas Savimbi
Jonas Malheiro Savimbi was an Angolan political leader. He founded and led UNITA, a movement that first waged a guerrilla war against Portuguese colonial rule, 1966–1974, then confronted the rival MPLA during the decolonization conflict, 1974/75, and after independence in 1975 fought the ruling...
(a former Maoist who broke away from the FNLA, later sponsored by the CIA and South Africa).
After the Carnation Revolution
Carnation Revolution
The Carnation Revolution , also referred to as the 25 de Abril , was a military coup started on 25 April 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, coupled with an unanticipated and extensive campaign of civil resistance...
of April 1974 in Portugal, the new revolutionary government of Portugal
Movimento das Forças Armadas
The Movement of the Armed Forces was an organisation of lower-ranked left-leaning officers in the Portuguese Armed Forces which was responsible for the Carnation Revolution of 25 April 1974, a military coup in Lisbon which ended the corporatist New State regime in Portugal, the Portuguese...
let go of Portugal's African overseas possessions, including Angola. The Treaty of Alvor
Alvor Agreement
The Alvor Agreement, signed on January 15, 1975, granted Angola independence from Portugal on November 11, ending the war for independence while marking the transition to civil war...
comprised a series of agreements between the three rebel factions and Portugal that were to pave the way to independence. Under its terms, a transitional government was formed, elections were scheduled for the end of the year, and 11 November 1975 was slated as Angola's independence day.
Fighting between the three rebel factions started soon after the transitional government took office on 31 January 1975, with each movement gaining control of their traditional areas of influence by mid-1975: The MPLA in the capital and central Angola, the FNLA in the north and UNITA in the south.
South Africa and Southwest Africa (Namibia)
Since the termination of the UN-mandate in 1966, South Africa had been illegally occupying Southwest Africa (NamibiaNamibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...
), a territory adjoining Angola to the south, and extending apartheid rule. 1966 saw the beginning of the armed resistance by the Southwest African liberation movement SWAPO and South African counter insurgency. After Angola’s independence in 1975, SWAPO gained the support of the Angolan government and operated against the South African forces from bases in Southern Angola. Thus, in the Angolan civil war, UNITA had become a welcome and valuable ally to South Africa in its fight against SWAPO.
On 9 August the South African Army (SADF) secured the Ruacana
Ruacana
Ruacana is a town in Omusati Region, northern Namibia and the district capital of the Ruacana electoral constituency. It is located on the border with Angola on the river Kunene. The town is known for the picturesque Ruacana Falls nearby....
hydro-electric complex on the border with Namibia after engineers were prevented from moving freely by an unruly and ill-disciplined UNITA force; on 14 October South Africa launched Operation Savanah in support of UNITA and FNLA advancing on Luanda and coming within 200 km of the city. The FNLA, supported by Zairian units, South Africans and Portuguese mercenaries advanced on Luanda from the east and got as far as Kifangondo. On 7 November Cuba launched Operation Carlota, intervening in favour of the MPLA (see Cuba in Angola) with up to 30.000 troops. This enabled the MPLA to hold Luanda and on 11 November Agostinho Neto
Agostinho Neto
António Agostinho Neto served as the first President of Angola , leading the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the war for independence and the civil war...
proclaimed the independence of Angola.
Cold War
The Angolan Civil War played out against the backdrop of the Cold WarCold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
struggle between the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
and the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Both superpower
Superpower
A superpower is a state with a dominant position in the international system which has the ability to influence events and its own interests and project power on a worldwide scale to protect those interests...
s tried to influence the outcome of the civil war through proxies
Proxy war
A proxy war or proxy warfare is a war that results when opposing powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly. While powers have sometimes used governments as proxies, violent non-state actors, mercenaries, or other third parties are more often employed...
.
The African liberation movements, which also opposed apartheid in South Africa, found mainly support in socialist countries. Angola and SWAPO were basically supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union and some countries of the Eastern bloc while the West, foremost the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
supported South Africa, albeit clandestinely, and their ally, UNITA.
After the Cubans had helped the MPLA gain power in 1975 they found it necessary to stay in the country until conditions stabilized.
The Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc
Eastern bloc
The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...
countries supplied the Angolan army (FAPLA) with armament, advisors and specialized technical staff.
UNITA managed to rebound and, with South African and US support, posed a threat to the Angolan government. UNITA also received backing from the US allies, most notably in the form of Stinger missiles
FIM-92 Stinger
The FIM-92 Stinger is a personal portable infrared homing surface-to-air missile , which can be adapted to fire from ground vehicles and helicopters , developed in the United States and entered into service in 1981. Used by the militaries of the U.S...
that helped repel the air superiority of the FAPLA forces. While the U.S. helped with money and weaponry, South Africa sent around 5000 troops in aid.
South Africa's interests lay in preventing the Angolan government from gaining control of south-eastern Angola and in UNITA keeping hold of the territory as a buffer zone. Angola bordered on South African occupied Namibia
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...
(at the time called South West Africa
South West Africa
South-West Africa was the name that was used for the modern day Republic of Namibia during the earlier eras when the territory was controlled by the German Empire and later by South Africa....
). UNITA and South African control of southern Angola would make it difficult for SWAPO to fight for Namibian independence from bases in Angola.
The South African government's strategic concern was to ensure continued UNITA control over regions bordering Namibia, so as to prevent the SWAPO guerrillas from receiving Angolan support and gaining a springboard in southern Angola from which to launch attacks into Southwest Africa. It’s security strategy was shaped by the doctrines of pre-emptive interventionism and counter-revolutionary warfare.
After South Africa had been unable to prevent the leftist MPLA, which it viewed as a Soviet surrogate, from taking power in Angola in 1975, it regarded the country as a threat to its security. This view was only confirmed by the deployment of Cuban troops in Angola. Therefore the apartheid regime's goal was to overthrow and replace the MPLA-government in Luanda with a ‘friendly’ and anti-Communist one. It actively supported the "de facto" secession of Southern Angola and, in 1979, decided to install the UNITA as its "de facto" government. After South African operation "Protea" in August 1981, in which it occupied 50.000 km² of Cunene province, UNITA took effective administrative control of most of Cunene in January 1982.
Operação Saludando Octubre ("Operation Greeting October ")
Because of UNITA’s continued insurgency, the central government never managed to gain control of the whole country; UNITA more or less held on to much of south-eastern Angola. Whenever it was threatened, South Africa intervened on its behalf. South Africa itself continuously kept the whole southern border in Angola and, at times, up to 50.000 km² of Cunene province occupied and repeatedly undertook invasions and raids into the country.In 1987, as part of the Angolan government's repeated campaigns against UNITA and for the control of south-eastern Angola, the Angolan army launched campaign Operação Saludando Octubre to rout UNITA forces from their stronghold cities of Mavinga
Mavinga, Cuando Cubango
Mavinga is a town and municipality in the Cuando Cubango province of Angola. The area spans 44,347 km² and contains about 30,000 inhabitants. It comprises the communes of Mavinga, Cunjamba/Dime, Cutuile and Luengue....
, a former Portuguese military base and Jamba in the southeast of the country just above the Caprivi Strip
Caprivi Strip
Caprivi, sometimes called the Caprivi Strip , Caprivi Panhandle or the Okavango Strip and formally known as Itenge, is a narrow protrusion of Namibia eastwards about , between Botswana to the south, Angola and Zambia to the north, and Okavango Region to the west. Caprivi is bordered by the...
. As in the previous ones, planning and leadership was taken over by the Soviets and the higher ranks in the units were taken over by Soviet officers. General Konstantin Shaganovitch would command the Angolan forces in the battle. Soviet command did not include the Cuban forces in Angola and the Cubans initially did not actively engage in combat but only took over support functions. FAPLA's equipment was upgraded including 150 T-55
T-55
The T-54 and T-55 tanks were a series of main battle tanks designed in the Soviet Union. The first T-54 prototype appeared in March 1945, just before the end of the Second World War. The T-54 entered full production in 1947 and became the main tank for armored units of the Soviet Army, armies of...
and T-62
T-62
The T-62 is a Soviet main battle tank, a further development of the T-55. Its 115 mm gun was the first smoothbore tank gun in use.The T-62 was produced between 1961 and 1975. It became a standard tank in the Soviet arsenal, partly replacing the T-55, although that tank continued to be...
tanks and Mi-24 helicopters. The Soviets dismissed the advice of the Cubans, as in the campaigns before, who warned that the operation would create another opportunity for a South African intervention. It was decided to commence the attack from Cuito Cuanavale
Cuito Cuanavale
Cuito Cuanavale is a town and municipality in Cuando Cubango province in Angola. The names Kuito Kuanavale or Kwito Kwanavale are sometimes used, although this is a mutation of the original Portuguese name....
.
Taking notice of the massive military build-up, South Africa warned UNITA. The Angolan campaign was initially successful and made considerable gains into south-eastern Angola. The South African government became aware that UNITA would not be able to withhold the onslaught. On 15 June it decided to intervene and authorized covert support. On 4 August 1987 the SADF launched Operation Moduler
Operation Modular
Operation Modular was a military operation by the South African Defence Force during the South African Border War. It formed part of what has come to be called the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale....
which was to stop the Angolan advance on Mavinga. The SADF 61 Mechanized Battalion crossed into Angola from their base at the border town of Rundu
Rundu
Rundu is the capital of the Kavango Region, northern Namibia, on the border with Angola on the banks of the Okavango River about 1000 m above sea level. The place normally receives an annual average rainfall of , although in the 2010/2011 rainy season were measured.Rundu grows rapidly...
.
Battle of the Lomba River
In August the FAPLA 21st, 25th (both light infantry), 47th (armoured) and the 59th (mechanized) brigades (some sources also include the 16th brigade) of FAPLA, departed from the Cuito Cuanavale. They received air support from the airbase at MenongueMenongue
Menongue is a town and municipality in Cuando Cubango Province in Angola.It is the terminus of the southern railway from Namibe.-History:Menongue, formerly Serpa Pinto, was originally named for Alexandre Alberto da Rocha de Serpa Pinto, a late 19th-century Portuguese explorer of the interior of...
, including MiG 23
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 is a variable-geometry fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union. It is considered to belong to the Soviet third generation jet fighter category, along with similarly aged Soviet fighters such as the MiG-25 "Foxbat"...
s deployed in a ground-attack role.
Facing them were the UNITA forces composed of the 3rd Regular, 5th Regular, 13th Semi-Regular and 275th Special Forces Battalions On 28 August they reached the northern banks of the Lomba River near Mavinga, where they were expected by the SADF.
In a series of bitter fights (Battle of the Lomba River II) between 9 September and 7 October, SADF and UNITA prevented the FAPLA, which suffered heavy losses, from crossing the river. The Soviets withdrew their advisors and left the FAPLA without senior leadership.
On 29 September, South African and UNITA forces, having gained the upper-hand, launched an offensive (Operation Hooper
Operation Hooper
Operation Hooper was a military operation by the South African Defence Force during the South African Border War. This operation forms part of what has come to be called the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale....
). On 3 October they attacked and annihilated a FAPLA-battalion on the southern banks of the Lomba River near Mavinga and two days later the Angolan army headed into a retreat over 190 km back to Cuito Cuanavale, which it desperately held on to.
If Cuito Cuanavale was lost by FAPLA, the next closest comparable outpost would be Menongue
Menongue
Menongue is a town and municipality in Cuando Cubango Province in Angola.It is the terminus of the southern railway from Namibe.-History:Menongue, formerly Serpa Pinto, was originally named for Alexandre Alberto da Rocha de Serpa Pinto, a late 19th-century Portuguese explorer of the interior of...
, 300 km from Mavinga and 500 km from UNITA's headquarters at Jamba. In pursuit of the retreating FAPLA units the SADF and UNITA started the siege of Cuito Cuanavale on 14 October with long-range shelling by 155 mm artillery
G5 howitzer
The G5 is a South African towed howitzer of 155 mm calibre designed with the help of the Canadian scientist Gerald Bull and his company, Space Research Corporation and manufactured by Denel Land Systems.-Production history:...
from a distance of 30 to 40 km.
Cuito Cuanavale
By November, the SADF had cornered the remnants of three FAPLA units on the east of the Cuito River, across from the town itself and was poised to destroy them.The quite demoralised 59th FAPLA motorised infantry brigade, 21st and 25th FAPLA light infantry brigades, in positions near Tumpo and east of the Cuito River, were effectively cut off due to SADF artillery control of both the bridge and airstrip and to UNITA guerrilla control of the road from Menongue, which they had mined and were prepared to ambush. With no functioning armour or artillery remaining, the FAPLA-units faced annihilation.
On 15 November, the Angolan government requested urgent military assistance from Cuba.
Although not responsible for the dismal situation of the FAPLA Cuba felt impelled to intervene in order to prevent a total disaster for the Angolans. In Castro's view, a South African victory would have meant not only the capture of Cuito and the destruction of the best Angolan military formations, but, quite probably, the end of Angola's existence as an independent country. Thus, Fidel Castro
Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz is a Cuban revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011...
responded immediately by sending — in what was called "Maniobra XXXI Aniversario de las FAR" — materiel
Materiel
Materiel is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management....
and 15 000 elite troops, retaking the initiative from the Soviets.
The first Cuban reinforcements in Cuito arrived by helicopter on 5 December with about 160–200 technicians, advisers, officers, and special forces.
General Arnaldo Ochoa
Arnaldo Ochoa
Arnaldo T. Ochoa Sánchez was a prominent Cuban general who was executed after being found guilty of treason.-Career:Ochoa was born from an old Oriente area family of farmers...
, a veteran of the 1976 Angola campaign and of tank battles in Ethiopia, was made overall commander of the forces on the government side. Ochoa and Castro were to have serious disagreements in the conduct of the war in Angola. These tensions were to have repercussions both during the war where Castro's interference with defense plans may have cost the Cubans dozens of lives and in the aftermath of Angolan hostilities a year later when Ochoa was arrested, tried and executed by firing squad after being found guilt of treason. General Cintras Frias was made commander at Cuito Cuanavale.
The Cuban's initial priority was securing Cuito Cuanavale, but while enforcements were arriving at the besieged garrison they made preparations for a second front to the west of Cuito Cuanavale in Lubango
Lubango
Lubango is the capital city of the Angolan province of Huíla. Its last known population was 100,757. Until 1975, the city's official name was Sá da Bandeira.-Portuguese rule:...
where the SADF had been operating unhindered for 8 years.
On 25 November the UN Security Council demanded the SADF's unconditional withdrawal from Angola by 10 December, yet, without threatening any sanctions. Through December the situation for the besieged Angolans became critical as the SADF tightened the noose around Cuito Cuanavale. Observers expected it to fall into South African hands any time soon and UNITA prematurely announced the town had been taken.
As of 21 December the SADF planned the final assault "pick off" the FAPLA units which were still caught to the east of the Cuito river "before moving in to occupy the town if the conditions were favourable".
On 9 January the SADF destroyed the important bridge across the Cuito river using a smart bomb
Smart bomb
Smart bomb has several meanings:* In weapons, a smart bomb is a precision-guided munition* Smart Bomb Interactive, a video game development studio based in Salt Lake City, Utah...
. The Cubans managed to construct a wooden footbridge in its place which they baptised Patria o Muerte (fatherland or death).) They partly buried disabled tanks so that their turrets could be used as fixed artillery pieces.
The SADF brought up reinforcements and then carried out, beginning 13 January until 23 March, the first of what would prove to be six major ground assaults on the entrenched FAPLA positions east of the river, none of which delivered tangible results. A large Cuban and FAPLA column was on the way from Menongue for the relief of Cuito Cuanavale, but progress in the rainy season was slow due to the need to clear the UNITA minefields and guard against possible ambushes. They did not reach Cuito Cuanavale in time to take part in the first engagement.
Although the first attack on 13 January 1988 was successful, spelling near disaster for a FAPLA brigade, the SADF unable to continue withdrew to its starting positions. A month later, on 14 February, the SADF withdrew from a second assault after successfully driving FAPLA-Cuban units off the Chambinga high ground. Close to a catastrophe, the FAPLA units east of the Cuito River withdrew to the Tumpo (river) triangle, a smaller area, ideally suited to defence. In a third assault on 19 February the SADF suffered a first major setback when it was repelled by FAPLA battalion north of the Dala river; unable to reach FAPLA's forward positions the SADF had to withdraw. In the following days the Cubans stepped up their air attacks against South African positions. On 25 February the FAPLA-Cubans repelled a fourth assault and the SADF had to return to its positions east of the Tumpo River. The failure of this attack "proved a turning point of the battle of Cuito Cuanavale, boosting FAPLA's flagging morale and bringing the South African advance to a standstill." A fifth SADF-attack was beaten back on 29 February delivering a third consecutive defeat. After some more preparation the South Africans launched their last and fourth unsuccessful attack on 23 March. As SADF-Colonel Jan Breytenbach wrote, the South African assault "was brought to a grinding and definite halt" by the combined Cuban and Angolan forces.
Eventually Cuban troop strength in Angola increased to about 55,000, with 40,000 deployed in the south. Due to the international arms embargo
United Nations Security Council Resolution 418
United Nations Security Council Resolution 418, adopted unanimously on 4 November 1977, imposed a mandatory arms embargo against apartheid South Africa. This resolution differed from the earlier Resolution 282, which was only voluntary...
since 1977, South Africa’s aging air force was outclassed by sophisticated Soviet-supplied air defence systems and air-strike capabilities fielded by the Cubans and Angolans and it was unable to uphold the air supremacy it had enjoyed for years; its loss in turn proved to be critical to the outcome of the battle on the ground. The Cuito airstrip was kept in repair, but since it was under constant observation by the SADF artillery and air force it could not be safely used by fixed wing aircraft.
G5 howitzer
The G5 is a South African towed howitzer of 155 mm calibre designed with the help of the Canadian scientist Gerald Bull and his company, Space Research Corporation and manufactured by Denel Land Systems.-Production history:...
from a distance of 30 to 40 km.
While the Cubans had purported to be moving south into Namibia according to comments from Castro they instead moved to cut off elements of the SADF. The SADF had left much of its powerful G-5 artillery units in place due to the difficulty in transporting during the rainy season. For whatever reasons—possibly not wanting to upset strategic negotiations, willingness to risk casualties or similar difficulties with mechanized forces—the Cubans did not attempt to take the SADF positions and settled for surrounding the small force.
With that manoeuvre, Fidel Castro increased the cost to South Africa of continuing to fight in Angola and placed Cuba in its most aggressive combat position of the war, thus fortifying his present argument that he is preparing to leave Angola with his opponents on the defensive.
Weapons
The SADF used a mix of British, French, Israeli, captured Soviet and indigenously developed weaponry. Their allies, UNITA used a mix of Soviet and South African supplied weaponry. The United States covertly supplied UNITA guerillas with StingersFIM-92 Stinger
The FIM-92 Stinger is a personal portable infrared homing surface-to-air missile , which can be adapted to fire from ground vehicles and helicopters , developed in the United States and entered into service in 1981. Used by the militaries of the U.S...
for anti-aircraft defense. The South Africans were hampered by an international arms embargo which prevented them from acquiring more modern aircraft. The Cubans and FAPLA were armed with Soviet weaponry.
| Type | Angola Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city... (FAPLA), Cuba Cuba The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city... (FAR Far Far or FAR may refer to:- Organizations :* Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias, part of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces* Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias , a guerrilla group in Argentina... ) |
South Africa South Africa The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans... (SADF), UNITA UNITA The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola is the second-largest political party in Angola. Founded in 1966, UNITA fought with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in the Angolan War for Independence and then against the MPLA in the ensuing civil war .The war was one... |
|---|---|---|
| AFVs Armoured fighting vehicle An armoured fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle, protected by strong armour and armed with weapons. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked.... |
T-34-85, T-54B, T-55 T-55 The T-54 and T-55 tanks were a series of main battle tanks designed in the Soviet Union. The first T-54 prototype appeared in March 1945, just before the end of the Second World War. The T-54 entered full production in 1947 and became the main tank for armored units of the Soviet Army, armies of... , T-62 T-62 The T-62 is a Soviet main battle tank, a further development of the T-55. Its 115 mm gun was the first smoothbore tank gun in use.The T-62 was produced between 1961 and 1975. It became a standard tank in the Soviet arsenal, partly replacing the T-55, although that tank continued to be... , PT-76 PT-76 The PT-76 is a Soviet amphibious light tank which was introduced in the early 1950s and soon became the standard reconnaissance tank of the Soviet Army and the other Warsaw Pact armed forces. It was widely exported to other friendly states, like India, Iraq, North Korea and North Vietnam. Overall,... , SU-100 SU-100 The SU-100 was a Soviet tank destroyer. It was used extensively during the last year of World War II and saw service for many years afterwards with the armies of Soviet allies around the world.- Development :... World War II vintage self propelled guns were not used. |
Olifant, Ratel IFV Ratel IFV The Ratel is the basic Infantry Fighting Vehicle of the South African National Defence Force's mechanized infantry battalions. Ratel is the Afrikaans name for the honey badger, which has a reputation as a ferocious fighter.-History:... , Eland Mk7 Eland Mk7 The Eland is a South African light armoured car based on the Panhard AML. Its permanent 4x4 drive gives it its mobility, and it can carry either a 90 mm quick firing low pressure gun, or a 60 mm breech loading mortar as main weapons... (AML-90) |
| APCs Armoured personnel carrier An armoured personnel carrier is an armoured fighting vehicle designed to transport infantry to the battlefield.APCs are usually armed with only a machine gun although variants carry recoilless rifles, anti-tank guided missiles , or mortars... /IFVs Infantry fighting vehicle An infantry fighting vehicle , also known as a mechanized infantry combat vehicle , is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide fire support for them... |
BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-50, BTR-60PB, BRDM-2, BMP-1 and MT-LB (tracked light-armoured towing vehicle) | Buffel Buffel The Buffel is a mine-protected APC used by the South African Army during the South African Border War. The Buffel was also used as an armoured fighting vehicle and proved itself in this role... , Casspir Casspir The Casspir is a landmine-protected personnel carrier that has been in use in South Africa for over 20 years. It is a four wheeled armoured vehicle, used for transport of troops. It can hold a crew of two, plus 12 additional soldiers and associated gear. The Casspir was unique in design when... |
| Artillery | ZIS-3 (76 mm), D-30 (122 mm), ML-20 (152 mm), D-1 (152 mm), M-46 (130 mm) BM-21 Grad (MLR) and BM-14 | G5 howitzer G5 howitzer The G5 is a South African towed howitzer of 155 mm calibre designed with the help of the Canadian scientist Gerald Bull and his company, Space Research Corporation and manufactured by Denel Land Systems.-Production history:... , G6 Self-Propelled Gun G6 howitzer The G6 self-propelled howitzer is a South African artillery piece, developed around the ordnance of the G5 howitzer. It is one of the most powerful self-propelled guns on a wheeled chassis.... , Valkiri 127mm Multiple rocket launcher Valkiri The Valkiri is a South African self-propelled multiple rocket launcher developed in the 1980s by Somchem, a division of the Denel corporation.... , Ordnance QF 25 pounder Ordnance QF 25 pounder The Ordnance QF 25 pounder, or more simply, 25-pounder or 25-pdr, was introduced into service just before World War II, during which it served as the major British field gun/howitzer. It was considered by many to be the best field artillery piece of the war, combining high rates of fire with a... |
| Aircraft | MiG-23ML, MiG-21bis, Sukhoi Su-17/Su-22 | Dassault Mirage F-1, Blackburn Buccaneer Blackburn Buccaneer The Blackburn Buccaneer was a British low-level subsonic strike aircraft with nuclear weapon delivery capability serving with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force between 1962 and 1994, including service in the 1991 Gulf War... , Dassault Mirage III Dassault Mirage III The Mirage III is a supersonic fighter aircraft designed by Dassault Aviation during the late 1950s, and manufactured both in France and a number of other countries. It was a successful fighter aircraft, being sold to many air forces around the world and remaining in production for over a decade... , English Electric Canberra English Electric Canberra The English Electric Canberra is a first-generation jet-powered light bomber manufactured in large numbers through the 1950s. The Canberra could fly at a higher altitude than any other bomber through the 1950s and set a world altitude record of 70,310 ft in 1957... , Impala Aermacchi MB-326 The Aermacchi or Macchi MB-326 is a light military jet aircraft designed in Italy. Originally conceived as a two-seat trainer, there have also been single and two-seat light attack versions produced. It is one of the most commercially successful aircraft of its type, being bought by more than 10... , |
| Helicopters | Mi-8/Mi-17, Mi-26, Mi-24/Mi-35 | Super Frelon, Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma, Westland Wasp Westland Wasp The Westland Wasp was a British small first-generation, gas-turbine powered, shipboard anti-submarine helicopter. Produced by Westland Helicopters, it came from the same P.531 programme as the British Army Westland Scout, and was based on the earlier piston-engined Saunders-Roe Skeeter... , Aérospatiale Alouette III Aérospatiale Alouette III The Aérospatiale Alouette III is a single-engine, light utility helicopter developed by Sud Aviation. It was manufactured by Aérospatiale of France, and under licence by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited in India as Hal Chetak and Industria Aeronautică Română in Romania.The Alouette III is the... , Atlas Oryx Atlas Oryx The Atlas Oryx is a medium-sized utility helicopter manufactured by the Atlas Aircraft Corporation of South Africa.-Design and development:... |
| Reconnaissance/observation | Bosbok, UAV's | |
| AAW Anti-aircraft warfare NATO defines air defence as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures. It may be to protect naval, ground and air forces... |
2K12 Kub/Kwadrat, 9K33 Osa-AK, S-125 Pechora, S-75 Dvina, ZSU-23-4 Shilka, ZU-23-2 Zeushka, Strela-2M, Strela-3, Strela-10, Igla, ZPU-4, ZPU-2, ZGU-1 | Cactus, Tigercat, Bofors 40 mm, Ystervark self-propelled 20 mm AA vehicles, FIM-92 Stinger FIM-92 Stinger The FIM-92 Stinger is a personal portable infrared homing surface-to-air missile , which can be adapted to fire from ground vehicles and helicopters , developed in the United States and entered into service in 1981. Used by the militaries of the U.S... (used by UNITA) |
| Infantry weapons and anti tank support | AK (AK-47), AKM, AKMS, RP/RPK, RPD, PK (PKM), DShK (DShkM), KPV (KPVT), HMG, 9K11 Malyutka, RPG-7], B-10 recoilless rifle, B-11 recoilless rifle | Heckler & Koch G3 Heckler & Koch G3 The G3 is a 7.62mm battle rifle developed in the 1950s by the German armament manufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH in collaboration with the Spanish state-owned design and development agency CETME .... , R1 FN MAG The FN MAG is a Belgian 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun, designed in the early 1950s at Fabrique Nationale by Ernest Vervier. It has been used by more than 80 countries, and it has been made under licence in countries such as Argentina, Egypt, India, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the... , R4 assault rifle R4 assault rifle The R4 is a 5.56mm assault rifle that was introduced into service with the South African Defence Force in 1982, replacing the earlier 7.62mm FN FAL rifle, that was manufactured in South Africa under a license agreement from Fabrique Nationale as the R1... , FN MAG FN MAG The FN MAG is a Belgian 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun, designed in the early 1950s at Fabrique Nationale by Ernest Vervier. It has been used by more than 80 countries, and it has been made under licence in countries such as Argentina, Egypt, India, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the... , M2 Browning, M40 recoilless rifle M40 recoilless rifle The M40 recoilless rifle was a lightweight, portable, crew-served 105 mm weapon intended primarily as an anti-tank weapon made in the United States... , RPG-7 RPG-7 The RPG-7 is a widely-produced, portable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade launcher. Originally the RPG-7 and its predecessor, the RPG-2, were designed by the Soviet Union, and now manufactured by the Bazalt company... , ENTAC ENTAC Entac or MGM-32A was a French MCLOS wire-guided Anti-tank missile. Developed in the early 1950s, the missile entered service with the French army in 1957... , MILAN MILAN MILAN " is French and German for "kite bird") is a European anti-tank guided missile. Design of the MILAN started in 1962. It was ready for trials in 1971, and was accepted for service in 1972. It is a wire guided SACLOS missile, which means the sight of the launch unit has to be aimed at the... and ZT-3 Ingwe (missile) The Ingwe is a modern South African multi-role laser guided anti-tank guided missile manufactured by Denel Dynamics .The missile was designed to be employed in various roles, either by infantry... anti-tank guided missile |
| Air-to-Air Missiles | K-13, R-60 | Matra 530, V3B |
Trucks used by FAPLA
Engesa-15, Engesa-25, Engesa-50 (Brazilian)
Mercedes (West Germany)
Pegaso (Spain)
IFAW50 (GDR)
GAZ-66, ZIL-131, URAL-375/URAL-4320
GAZ-51 and GAZ-63 (were used by Cubans outside Cuito)
KAMAZ and ZIL-130 (civil trucks): ZIL-157 (all were used outside Cuito)
Jeeps
UAZ-469
UAZ-69 (GAZ-69) (used by Cubans outside Cuito)
Niva
Land Rover 109
Land Rover 110
Land Rover Defender
Miniubuses
RAF-2203 and UAZ-452
Pistols
Walther P38
TT-33 (TT)
MP (Makarov)
APS (Stechkin)
Beretta 92
Aftermath
In the aftermath of Cuito Cuanavale on the eve of the first round of peace talks in two years Castro ordered Cuban, FAPLA and SWAPO units under General Cintras Frías opened a second front to the west at CaluequeCalueque
Calueque is a village next to a dam and pumping station on the Cunene River in the Cunene Province of southern Angola. The project is linked to Ruacana, 20 km away inside Namibia, where an underground hydro-electric power station was built. A 300 km pipeline and canal extends across the...
(Lubango
Lubango
Lubango is the capital city of the Angolan province of Huíla. Its last known population was 100,757. Until 1975, the city's official name was Sá da Bandeira.-Portuguese rule:...
) with a force of 40,000 Cuban troops and a 30,000 of Angolan forces, and with support from MiG-23 fighter bombers. The first South African resistance was encountered near Calueque on 15 March, followed by three months of bloody clashes as the Cubans slowly progressed towards the Namibian border.
On 9 March 1988, the Angolans, now joined by the Cubans, entered into the first round of US-brokered peace negotiations. On 3 May 1988 the South Africans returned to the peace negotiations which they had abandoned two years before.
On 26 May, the chief of the SADF announced that heavily armed Cuban and SWAPO forces had moved south within 60 km (37.3 mi) of the Namibian border. The remaining SADF forces at Cuito Cuanavale Combat Group 20 was left in place to construct minefields and carry out deception operations in order to prevent a FAPLA offensive. A number of skirmishes occurred while the SADF forces were disengaging, most notably Operation Hilti/Excite. In response to this 32 Battalion inserted an intelligence team under the command of Capt. Herman Mulder, who set up a tactical HQ at Ruacana
Ruacana
Ruacana is a town in Omusati Region, northern Namibia and the district capital of the Ruacana electoral constituency. It is located on the border with Angola on the river Kunene. The town is known for the picturesque Ruacana Falls nearby....
, supporting two teams doing reconnaissance south-each of Techipa along the Devangulu Mountains; with the second team operating in the Handa Rotunda area. After gathering the required intelligence Operation Hilti/Excite was initiated on 13 June with the deployment of one company from 61 Mechanized Battalion at Dongue, 25 km (15.5 mi) south-west of Xangongo
Xangongo
Xangongo is a town in Cunene Province, Angola. It is located at around . It was also the site of considerable fighting in the war for the independence of Namibia and the Angolan Civil War.-Xangongo and SWAPO:...
. An attack was also laucnhed against Ongiva by 32 Battalion. G5 and G2 artillery pieces were provided to 61 Mechanized Battalion and they engaged the Cuban 50th Division based at Ongiva. A fierce skirmish took place at Cuamato and 201 Battalion lost one vehicle but held the town on 24 June 1988. Operation Displace was launched and became the last significant hot engagement of the entire war at Techipa on 26 June. A running fire fight happened when a platoon from 32 Battalion was engaged in an action that took place over a 20 km (12.4 mi) distance. On 27 June 61 Mechanized Battalion engaged a Cuban tank squadron before they crossed the Cunene River back into Namibia. The MiG-23s lost their tactical advantage for some unknown reason and bombed Calueque Dam, causing the last loss of life in that conflict when they kill 10 soldiers from 8 SAI. Two MiG-23s were damaged by ground fire. On 8 June 1988, hoping to send a strong message to the Cubans that they would respond to any movement into South-West Africa the South African government called up 140,000 men of the reserves (Citizen Force). This was known as Operation Desert Fox and it consisted of 81 Armoured Brigade, which positioned itself on 30 July 1988 just south of Ruacana, tasked with the responsibility of neutralizing the very aggressive Cuban 50th Brigade if need be. The signing of the formal peace treaty at Ruacana on 22 August 1988 meant that Operation Desert Fox could be aborted.
By the end of May, Cuba had two divisions in south-western Angola. By June, they constructed two forward airbases at Cahama
Cahama
Cahama is a city of Cunene Province, Angola. The population is about 52,000.There is an airport to the north of the city....
and Xangongo
Xangongo
Xangongo is a town in Cunene Province, Angola. It is located at around . It was also the site of considerable fighting in the war for the independence of Namibia and the Angolan Civil War.-Xangongo and SWAPO:...
with which Cuban air power could be projected into Namibia. All of southern Angola was covered by a radar network and SA-8 air defence ending South African air superiority.
In June 1988, the Cubans prepared to advance on Calueque starting from Xangongo and Tchipa. In case of serious South African counter attacks, they were prepared to destroy the Ruacana reservoirs and transformers and attack South African bases in Namibia. The offensive started from Xangongo on June 23 immediately clashing with the SADF en route to Cuamato. An SADF screening force encountered the Cuban advance in a firefight resulting in the withdrawal of the SADF force and the decision of the FAPLA-Cubans to return to their base. On 26 June the SADF conducted Operation Excite to test Cuban forces in the area. The SADF sent up decoys to provoke SAM sites into revealing their positions and shelled Tchipa with long-range artillery effectively destroying the Cuban's ability to utilize their own artillery. A series of firefights ensued with SADF tanks launching a spoiling attack on the initial gathering armor forces then withdrawing fearing being overwhelmed by Cuban reinforcements.
Cuban MiGs carried out the attacks on the SADF positions around the Calueque dam, 11 km (6.8 mi) north of the Namibian border, also damaging the bridge and hydroelectric installations. The major force of the Cubans, still on the way, never saw action and returned to Tchipa. With the withdrawal of the SADF into Namibia an 27 June the hostilities ceased.
The South Africans, impressed by the suddenness and scale of the Cuban advance and believing that a major battle "involved serious risks" withdrew. For their part the Cubans were shocked at the heavy casualties they had suffered and put their troops on alert to expect a strong South African response. Five days later Pretoria ordered Combat Group 20 which was still operational east of Cuito Cuanavale to scale back to avoid any more casualties, effectively withdrawing from all fighting, and a SADF division was deployed in defence of Namibia's northern border.
At the bargaining table the South Africans agreed to withdraw from Angola by 1 September 1988 and to the implementation of Resolution 435 for Southwest Africa on 1 November, leading to the independence of Namibia. This agreement was based on intelligence that indicated the Soviet Union would no longer sustain surrogate forces in the Third World, and that Cuba was starting to take strain from the mounting casualties. The Cubans in return would pull troops out of Angola by 1 July 1991. A peace accord
New York Accords
The Tripartite Accord, Three Powers Accord or New York Accords granted independence to Namibia and ended the direct involvement of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War...
, mediated
Mediation
Mediation, as used in law, is a form of alternative dispute resolution , a way of resolving disputes between two or more parties. A third party, the mediator, assists the parties to negotiate their own settlement...
by Chester Crocker
Chester Crocker
Chester Arthur Crocker is an American diplomat who served as Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs from 1981 to 1989 in the Reagan administration. Crocker, architect of the U.S...
, was finally signed on 22 December 1988 in New York.
Nelson Mandela
Nelson Mandela
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, and was the first South African president to be elected in a fully representative democratic election. Before his presidency, Mandela was an anti-apartheid activist, and the leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing...
considered the FAPLA-Cuban success at Cuito and in Lubango a turning point in the Angolan civil war as well as in the struggle for Namibian independence. The battle at Cuito, raging for 6 months, was the biggest battle on African soil since World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
". The casualties were high, especially on the Angolan side; in its course around 20,000 soldiers were killed.
Claims of victory in this battle have been made from all sides, depending on the military, political or moral point of view. It was a clear-cut military victory that South Africa and UNITA repelled the Angolan offensive at the Lomba River and went on the counter offensive, also in terms of human and material losses. According to veteran reporter Max du Preez
Max du Preez
Max du Preez is a South African author, columnist and documentary filmmaker and was the founding editor of Vrye Weekblad.-Vrye Weekblad:Du Preez founded Vrye Weekblad, an Afrikaans-language weekly newspaper, in November 1988...
, the SADF "fared a lot better than the Cubans expected or were later prepared to admit."
The war cost an estimated half a million lives and devastated Angola's infrastructure until the conflict finally ended after Savimbi was shot by government forces in 2002.
The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale is commemorated in several countries in Southern Africa. The 20th anniversary in 2008 was especially celebrated in Namibia.
External links
- The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
- Angola National Security
- Angola and Southwest Africa: A Forgotten War (1975-89)
- Aid to UNITA - Operations MODULAR, HOOPER and PACKER
- Operations Modular and Hooper 1987-88
- 7th South African Infantry Battalion and Cuito Cuanavale
- Cuban Tanks at Cuito Cuanavale
- Cuban MiG-23 Fighters at Cuito Cuanavale (Spanish)
- South African Tanks at Cuito Cuanavale
- U.S. Marine Corps Paper: Fighting Columns in Small Wars (Partially devoted to SADF Angolan Operations during this time period)
- South African Bush War Veterans Site