Battle of White Wolf Mountain
Encyclopedia
The Battle of White Wolf Mountain was a battle fought in 207 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms
period of Chinese history
. The battle took place in northern China, beyond the frontiers of the ruling Later Han Dynasty
. It was fought between the warlord Cao Cao
and the nomadic Wuhuan
tribes, who were allied with Cao's rivals Yuan Shang
and Yuan Xi
. The victory attained by Cao Cao dashed the hopes of a Wuhuan dominion, and the Wuhuan eventually became weakened, lost importance, and were gradually absorbed into China or the Xianbei
tribes.
had maintained good relations with the Wuhuan beyond Chinese borders during his campaign against rival warlord Gongsun Zan
, their common enemy, in the 190s. Yuan Shao gave the chieftains of his Wuhuan allies seals and insignia as chanyu
after the final destruction of Gongsun Zan in the Battle of Yijing
, and reinforced the alliance by marrying the daughters of his subordinates to the Wuhuan leaders, pretending as though the daughters were his own. The Wuhuan war leader Tadun was especially powerful and was thus very well-treated by Yuan Shao.
The Wuhuan continued to support the Yuan clan after Yuan Shao's defeat at the Battle of Guandu
against Cao Cao, shortly after which Yuan died. Subsequently, Yuan Shao's oldest and youngest son, Yuan Tan
and Yuan Shang respectively, fought among themselves in a succession feud, which Cao Cao exploited for himself. Soon Yuan Tan was killed in a battle against Cao Cao and Yuan Shang had to flee to his second brother, Yuan Xi, in You Province (幽州). The Yuan brothers in You Province then became attacked in a mutiny against them, and fled further north to seek protection from the Wuhuan. The Wuhuan at this time had been united under the military leadership of Tadun, and his apparent strength prompted rumours that he was seeking to emulate Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu
and Tanshihuai (檀石槐) of the Xianbei in creating a hegemony over the northern nomadic tribes. With the arrival of the Yuan brothers, accompanied by a considerable number of their followers, Tadun had gained command of a combined Wuhuan and Chinese force that was said to have numbered up to 300,000.
In the name of helping Yuan Shang regain his territories, the Wuhuan made several raids across the Chinese border. These raids were said to have kidnapped over 100,000 Chinese families. Posed with such danger in the north, Cao Cao contemplated the elimination of the Wuhuan threat.
However, Cao Cao's strategist Guo Jia
urged a swift attack with the following analysis:
Cao Cao agreed with Guo Jia's analysis, and in the summer of 207, Cao personally marched his army to Yijing (易京; present-day Yi County
, Hebei
) and made the city his base camp for the campaign. From there he advanced to Wuzhong (無終; present-day Ji County
, Tianjin
), where the local leader Tian Chou (田疇) submitted to him.
, Liaoning
), and the obvious line of attack from Wuzhong was through the plains along the coastline of the Bohai Sea
. However, in the seventh lunar month
, the monsoon season set in and the heavy rains flooded the low-lying areas and drenched the roads in mud, making the terrain impassible. The Wuhuan also anticipated such an attack route and held the river crossings, and for some time Cao Cao's army could not advance.
Cao Cao turned to Tian Chou, who was familiar with the area and had run-ins with the Wuhuan before, for advice regarding this situation. Tian Chou notified Cao Cao of a disused road that led to the abandoned Former Han frontier lands. From there the army can march through undefended territory and attack the Wuhuan where they least expect it, and by doing so "Tadun's head can be taken without a single battle", Tian Chou said. Cao Cao, most pleased, accepted the plan and led his army back (presumably to Wuzhong). He had his men erect signs on the roads by the water, which wrote "It is the middle of summer, and the road is impassable. We are waiting for autumn or winter to resume the advance." Enemy scouts saw the sign and apparently believed that Cao Cao really retreated. As Tian Chou had predicted, the Wuhuan were convinced that any force that could not advance through the plains had to turn back, which was a miscalculation most grave.
Guo Jia had advised that "swiftness is the key in war" (兵貴神速, which became a Chinese idiom), and thus suggested that Cao Cao should leave the baggage behind and make a forced march with light troops to take the enemy by surprise, since carrying too much baggage bogs the army down and alerts the enemy of the army's presence. Cao Cao took the suggestion to heart. With Tian Chou leading the way, Cao Cao led a light force to embark on what has been called one of his most remarkable military adventures of his career. They climbed the hills of Xuwu (徐無; west of present-day Zunhua
, Hebei
), exited the Chinese frontiers through Lulong Pass (盧龍塞; present-day Xifeng Pass 喜峰口) into the upper valley of the Luan River
, and marched through difficult terrain for over 500 li
. Turning east at Pinggang (平岡; near present-day Pingquan County, Hebei), the expedition force crossed the grazing fields of the Xianbei and re-entered the mountain ranges that served as Later Han Dynasty's borders. By now Cao Cao's men had flanked Tadun's defensive positions and was advancing on a line to the sea which would divide the enemy territory into two.
, Liaoning).
The encounter was sudden for both parties. Faced with superior numbers and the baggage left in the rear, Cao Cao's lightly armoured men became afraid. The Wuhuan, on the other hand, were evidently unprepared for battle as they were not in proper formations, nor did they attempt to take the initiative by harassing Cao Cao's march. Undaunted, Cao Cao climbed a slope to observe the enemy's formations. He saw that the Wuhuan were unordered, and immediately unleashed his soldiers to exploit this weakness. With general Zhang Liao
leading the offensive, the light force swiftly defeated the Wuhuan cavalry, and Cao Chun
's brigade captured Tadun. Within a short time, Tadun and many of his men were killed and the battle was over. Over 200,000 Chinese settlers and Wuhuan tribesmen surrendered to Cao Cao.
enjoyed some degree of independence from the Han Dynasty imperial court due to Liaodong's distance from the capital and the chaotic state in China. In the ninth lunar month Cao Cao continued his march into Liucheng, and there he halted, making no intention to attack Liaodong despite the urgings of his subordinates. "I shall arrange that Gongsun Kang cuts off the heads of Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi and sends them to me. No need to bother with soldiers," he said. He later explained that applying pressure to Liaodong may bind Yuan Shang and Gongsun Kang against him, but if he left them to their devices, they would quarrel within.
A few days after Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi arrived in Liaodong, Gongsun Kang arranged to see them. Yuan Shang plotted to kill Gongsun Kang and take his territory for the Yuans, but Gongsun Kang struck first, killing the brothers and sending their heads to Cao Cao. The Wuhuan leaders who followed the Yuans were not spared either and were all decapitated.
After this, Cao Cao returned to the North China Plain
after a particularly difficult withdrawal from Liucheng, where the coldness of early winter, shortage of food, and drought all took their toil on Cao Cao's men. He then rewarded and complimented the counsellors who had advised against the Wuhuan campaign earlier, acknowledging that the venture had been dangerous and risky and he had been blessed by fortune. Indeed, Liu Bei had tried to persuade Liu Biao to attack while Cao Cao was away in the north. Though as Guo Jia predicted, Liu Biao did not take the opportunity and later regretted this decision.
In the eleventh month, at the bank of the Yi River (易水), the Wuhuan leaders Nanlou (難樓) and Pufulu (普富盧), who did not join Tadun's ill-fated resistance, came to Cao Cao and offered their homage and congratulations, formally submitting to him. The Wuhuan who had surrendered were brought into China proper
en masse, and their horsemen became known as the finest cavalry force in the empire. In Cao Cao's remaining years, the Wuhuan would not pose any serious danger to his domain, though there were minor revolts in 216 and 218.
With the death of Tadun and the Yuan brothers, Cao Cao's domination of northern China was now unchallenged. The success in the north brought Cao Cao tremendous prestige as he took the title of Imperial Chancellor in 208, and the secured northern frontiers allowed Cao Cao to focus his military attention against Liu Biao to the south in the same year.
On the other hand, the Battle of White Wolf Mountain scattered the Wuhuan tribes, with remnants taking refuge in Manchuria
, Goguryeo
, and the western borders of Liaodong. As the years went by, these remnant Wuhuan tribes were eventually absorbed by the stronger powers nearby — some were assimilated by the Chinese, but most were incorporated into the Xianbei. The decline that began at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain destroyed the Wuhuan identity and their ability to remain politically independent, and for the most part, the Wuhuan ceased to be viewed as an independent people of the northern frontiers of China.
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
period of Chinese history
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
. The battle took place in northern China, beyond the frontiers of the ruling Later Han Dynasty
Later Han Dynasty
Later Han Dynasty may refer to:*Eastern Han Dynasty , second period of the Chinese Han Dynasty*Later Han Dynasty , in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period...
. It was fought between the warlord Cao Cao
Cao Cao
Cao Cao was a warlord and the penultimate chancellor of the Eastern Han Dynasty who rose to great power during the dynasty's final years. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and was posthumously titled...
and the nomadic Wuhuan
Wuhuan
The Wuhuan were a proto-Mongolic nomadic people who inhabited northern China, in what is now the provinces of Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, the municipality of Beijing and the autonomous region of Inner Mongolia....
tribes, who were allied with Cao's rivals Yuan Shang
Yuán Shàng
Yuan Shang , style name Xianfu , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the third son of the warlord Yuan Shao, and succeeded his father...
and Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi
Yuan Xi was the second son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.Yuan was described in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms as "intelligent but weak and indecisive", in contrast to his older brother Yuan Tan, who was described as...
. The victory attained by Cao Cao dashed the hopes of a Wuhuan dominion, and the Wuhuan eventually became weakened, lost importance, and were gradually absorbed into China or the Xianbei
Xianbei
The Xianbei were a significant Mongolic nomadic people residing in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and eastern Mongolia. The title “Khan” was first used among the Xianbei.-Origins:...
tribes.
Background
The northern warlord Yuan ShaoYuan Shao
Yuan Shao was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil war that occurred towards the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era...
had maintained good relations with the Wuhuan beyond Chinese borders during his campaign against rival warlord Gongsun Zan
Gongsun Zan
Gongsun Zan , style name Bogui , a native of Liaoxi , was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty era of Chinese history.-Biography:...
, their common enemy, in the 190s. Yuan Shao gave the chieftains of his Wuhuan allies seals and insignia as chanyu
Chanyu
Chanyu , was the title used by the nomadic supreme rulers of Middle and Central Asia for 8 centuries, starting...
after the final destruction of Gongsun Zan in the Battle of Yijing
Battle of Yijing
The Battle of Yijing was a battle that took place in northern China between 198 and 199 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history...
, and reinforced the alliance by marrying the daughters of his subordinates to the Wuhuan leaders, pretending as though the daughters were his own. The Wuhuan war leader Tadun was especially powerful and was thus very well-treated by Yuan Shao.
The Wuhuan continued to support the Yuan clan after Yuan Shao's defeat at the Battle of Guandu
Battle of Guandu
The Battle of Guandu was a military conflict between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao in 200 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. The battle, which concluded with victory for Cao Cao, was a turning point in the war between the two warlords...
against Cao Cao, shortly after which Yuan died. Subsequently, Yuan Shao's oldest and youngest son, Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan
Yuan Tan was the oldest son of the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. After Yuan Shao's death, Yuan Tan split with his youngest brother Yuan Shang over the successorship to their father's realm. Yuan Tan sought help from the warlord Cao Cao and defeated Yuan...
and Yuan Shang respectively, fought among themselves in a succession feud, which Cao Cao exploited for himself. Soon Yuan Tan was killed in a battle against Cao Cao and Yuan Shang had to flee to his second brother, Yuan Xi, in You Province (幽州). The Yuan brothers in You Province then became attacked in a mutiny against them, and fled further north to seek protection from the Wuhuan. The Wuhuan at this time had been united under the military leadership of Tadun, and his apparent strength prompted rumours that he was seeking to emulate Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
and Tanshihuai (檀石槐) of the Xianbei in creating a hegemony over the northern nomadic tribes. With the arrival of the Yuan brothers, accompanied by a considerable number of their followers, Tadun had gained command of a combined Wuhuan and Chinese force that was said to have numbered up to 300,000.
In the name of helping Yuan Shang regain his territories, the Wuhuan made several raids across the Chinese border. These raids were said to have kidnapped over 100,000 Chinese families. Posed with such danger in the north, Cao Cao contemplated the elimination of the Wuhuan threat.
Plans and preparations
To prepare for a campaign far to the north of the Chinese heartland, Cao Cao put Dong Zhao in charge of digging two canals, the Pinglu Trench (平虜渠; "Pacify-the-Caitiffs Trench") and the Quanzhou Trench (泉州渠), from the autumn of 206 to spring of 207 so he could use these waterways to ship supplies to the north. While these works were under way, some generals tried to dissuade Cao Cao from campaigning so far to the north in case of an attack from the south:However, Cao Cao's strategist Guo Jia
Guo Jia
Guo Jia was a strategist and advisor to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. During his 11 years of service, Guo Jia's brilliance greatly aided Cao Cao in his victories over rival warlords Lü Bu and Yuan Shao, as well as chief of the Wuhuan tribe, Tadun...
urged a swift attack with the following analysis:
- The northern barbarians are deluded by a false sense of security since they are so far away from the Chinese heartlands, thus if Cao Cao takes advantage of their miscalculation and attack them quickly, they can be defeated and destroyed.
- If Cao Cao turns his military prowess to the south before settling the north, the Yuan brothers and the Wuhuan will cause trouble, and the newly settled northern provinces will be lost.
- Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province, will not be persuaded by Liu Bei to launch an attack on Xu City, since Liu Biao is a person who does nothing but sit and talk. Liu Biao also does not trust Liu Bei as Liu Bei is a more competent man than he is — if he gives Liu Bei an important post he must be concerned that Liu Bei will become too powerful, but if he gives him a lesser position Liu Bei will be reluctant to serve him.
Cao Cao agreed with Guo Jia's analysis, and in the summer of 207, Cao personally marched his army to Yijing (易京; present-day Yi County
Yi County, Hebei
Yi County is a county in Hebei province of China, administratively under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Baoding. It has an area of ??? km².-Administrative divisions:Towns:...
, Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
) and made the city his base camp for the campaign. From there he advanced to Wuzhong (無終; present-day Ji County
Ji County, Tianjin
Ji County is a county in the far north of Tianjin municipality, China of cultural and historical significance . The administration of the county was transferred from Hebei province to Tianjin in 1973...
, Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
), where the local leader Tian Chou (田疇) submitted to him.
The oblique approach
The base of Wuhuan power was located at Liucheng (柳城; in present-day XingchengXingcheng
Xingcheng , former name Ningyuan , is a county-level city of Northeast China with a population of approximately 140,000 urban inhabitants, and is located in southwest Liaoning on the northern coast of the Bohai Sea...
, Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
), and the obvious line of attack from Wuzhong was through the plains along the coastline of the Bohai Sea
Bohai Sea
Bohai Sea , also known as Bohai Gulf, Bohai, or Bo Hai, is the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of Northeastern and North China. It is approximately 78,000 km2 Bohai Sea , also known as Bohai Gulf, Bohai, or Bo Hai, is the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of...
. However, in the seventh lunar month
Lunar month
In lunar calendars, a lunar month is the time between two identical syzygies . There are many variations. In Middle-Eastern and European traditions, the month starts when the young crescent moon becomes first visible at evening after conjunction with the Sun one or two days before that evening...
, the monsoon season set in and the heavy rains flooded the low-lying areas and drenched the roads in mud, making the terrain impassible. The Wuhuan also anticipated such an attack route and held the river crossings, and for some time Cao Cao's army could not advance.
Cao Cao turned to Tian Chou, who was familiar with the area and had run-ins with the Wuhuan before, for advice regarding this situation. Tian Chou notified Cao Cao of a disused road that led to the abandoned Former Han frontier lands. From there the army can march through undefended territory and attack the Wuhuan where they least expect it, and by doing so "Tadun's head can be taken without a single battle", Tian Chou said. Cao Cao, most pleased, accepted the plan and led his army back (presumably to Wuzhong). He had his men erect signs on the roads by the water, which wrote "It is the middle of summer, and the road is impassable. We are waiting for autumn or winter to resume the advance." Enemy scouts saw the sign and apparently believed that Cao Cao really retreated. As Tian Chou had predicted, the Wuhuan were convinced that any force that could not advance through the plains had to turn back, which was a miscalculation most grave.
Guo Jia had advised that "swiftness is the key in war" (兵貴神速, which became a Chinese idiom), and thus suggested that Cao Cao should leave the baggage behind and make a forced march with light troops to take the enemy by surprise, since carrying too much baggage bogs the army down and alerts the enemy of the army's presence. Cao Cao took the suggestion to heart. With Tian Chou leading the way, Cao Cao led a light force to embark on what has been called one of his most remarkable military adventures of his career. They climbed the hills of Xuwu (徐無; west of present-day Zunhua
Zunhua
Zunhua is a county-level city under the administration of Tangshan, Hebei, China. Historic sites include the Eastern Qing Tombs .-Administrative Divisions:Towns:...
, Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
), exited the Chinese frontiers through Lulong Pass (盧龍塞; present-day Xifeng Pass 喜峰口) into the upper valley of the Luan River
Luan River
The Luan River is a river in China. It flows northwards from its source in the province of Hebei into the province of Inner Mongolia, and then flows southeast back into Hebei to its mouth on the Bohai Sea. Its length is about 600 km. One subsidiary of the Luan River is the Yixun He, which...
, and marched through difficult terrain for over 500 li
Li (unit)
The li is a traditional Chinese unit of distance, which has varied considerably over time but now has a standardized length of 500 meters or half a kilometer...
. Turning east at Pinggang (平岡; near present-day Pingquan County, Hebei), the expedition force crossed the grazing fields of the Xianbei and re-entered the mountain ranges that served as Later Han Dynasty's borders. By now Cao Cao's men had flanked Tadun's defensive positions and was advancing on a line to the sea which would divide the enemy territory into two.
The battle
By autumn in the eighth lunar month, as Cao Cao's army reached the valley of Daling River (大凌河), Tadun and his allies realized what was happening and hastily withdrew from their prepared positions and gathered to face Cao Cao to the north. With tens of thousands of men gathered, Tadun, along with Yuan Shang, Yuan Xi, and the two Wuhuan chanyu Louban and Wuyan (烏延), met Cao Cao's army at White Wolf Mountain (白狼山; near present-day LingyuanLingyuan, Liaoning
Lingyuan is a city in the west of Liaoning province in Northeast China, bordering Hebei province and Inner Mongolia. It is under the administration of Chaoyang City, which lies to the east-northeast.-Administrative Divisions:...
, Liaoning).
The encounter was sudden for both parties. Faced with superior numbers and the baggage left in the rear, Cao Cao's lightly armoured men became afraid. The Wuhuan, on the other hand, were evidently unprepared for battle as they were not in proper formations, nor did they attempt to take the initiative by harassing Cao Cao's march. Undaunted, Cao Cao climbed a slope to observe the enemy's formations. He saw that the Wuhuan were unordered, and immediately unleashed his soldiers to exploit this weakness. With general Zhang Liao
Zhang Liao
Zhang Liao was a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He participated in many campaigns, including those against Yuan Shao's clan and the Wuhuan tribes...
leading the offensive, the light force swiftly defeated the Wuhuan cavalry, and Cao Chun
Cao Chun
Cao Chun was a cavalry general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He commanded the elite mounted force – the Tiger and Leopard Cavalry – in several campaigns against Yuan Tan, Tadun and Liu Bei.-Biography:Cao Chun was a younger...
's brigade captured Tadun. Within a short time, Tadun and many of his men were killed and the battle was over. Over 200,000 Chinese settlers and Wuhuan tribesmen surrendered to Cao Cao.
Aftermath
The battle was decisive — in one single engagement, Cao Cao had broken the back of Wuhuan resistance. With a few thousand horses, the Yuan brothers and the surviving Wuhuan leaders, Supuyan (蘇僕延), Louban, Wuyan and others, fled east to Liaodong (遼東; eastern Liaoning), where the warlord Gongsun KangGongsun Kang
Gongsun Kang was a warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He became a vassal of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.-Biography:...
enjoyed some degree of independence from the Han Dynasty imperial court due to Liaodong's distance from the capital and the chaotic state in China. In the ninth lunar month Cao Cao continued his march into Liucheng, and there he halted, making no intention to attack Liaodong despite the urgings of his subordinates. "I shall arrange that Gongsun Kang cuts off the heads of Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi and sends them to me. No need to bother with soldiers," he said. He later explained that applying pressure to Liaodong may bind Yuan Shang and Gongsun Kang against him, but if he left them to their devices, they would quarrel within.
A few days after Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi arrived in Liaodong, Gongsun Kang arranged to see them. Yuan Shang plotted to kill Gongsun Kang and take his territory for the Yuans, but Gongsun Kang struck first, killing the brothers and sending their heads to Cao Cao. The Wuhuan leaders who followed the Yuans were not spared either and were all decapitated.
After this, Cao Cao returned to the North China Plain
North China Plain
The North China Plain is based on the deposits of the Yellow River and is the largest alluvial plain of eastern Asia. The plain is bordered on the north by the Yanshan Mountains and on the west by the Taihang Mountains edge of the Shanxi plateau. To the south, it merges into the Yangtze Plain...
after a particularly difficult withdrawal from Liucheng, where the coldness of early winter, shortage of food, and drought all took their toil on Cao Cao's men. He then rewarded and complimented the counsellors who had advised against the Wuhuan campaign earlier, acknowledging that the venture had been dangerous and risky and he had been blessed by fortune. Indeed, Liu Bei had tried to persuade Liu Biao to attack while Cao Cao was away in the north. Though as Guo Jia predicted, Liu Biao did not take the opportunity and later regretted this decision.
In the eleventh month, at the bank of the Yi River (易水), the Wuhuan leaders Nanlou (難樓) and Pufulu (普富盧), who did not join Tadun's ill-fated resistance, came to Cao Cao and offered their homage and congratulations, formally submitting to him. The Wuhuan who had surrendered were brought into China proper
China proper
China proper or Eighteen Provinces was a term used by Western writers on the Qing Dynasty to express a distinction between the core and frontier regions of China. There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history...
en masse, and their horsemen became known as the finest cavalry force in the empire. In Cao Cao's remaining years, the Wuhuan would not pose any serious danger to his domain, though there were minor revolts in 216 and 218.
With the death of Tadun and the Yuan brothers, Cao Cao's domination of northern China was now unchallenged. The success in the north brought Cao Cao tremendous prestige as he took the title of Imperial Chancellor in 208, and the secured northern frontiers allowed Cao Cao to focus his military attention against Liu Biao to the south in the same year.
On the other hand, the Battle of White Wolf Mountain scattered the Wuhuan tribes, with remnants taking refuge in Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
, Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, and the western borders of Liaodong. As the years went by, these remnant Wuhuan tribes were eventually absorbed by the stronger powers nearby — some were assimilated by the Chinese, but most were incorporated into the Xianbei. The decline that began at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain destroyed the Wuhuan identity and their ability to remain politically independent, and for the most part, the Wuhuan ceased to be viewed as an independent people of the northern frontiers of China.