Battle of the Kalka River
Encyclopedia
The Battle of the Kalka River took place on May 31, 1223, between the Mongol Empire
(led by Jebe
and Subutai
) and Kiev
, Galich, and several other Rus' principalities and the Cumans
, under the command of Mstislav the Bold
and Mstislav III of Kiev
. The battle was fought on the banks of the Kalka River (in present-day Donetsk Oblast
, Ukraine
) and ended in a Mongol victory.
Following the Mongol invasion of Central Asia
and the subsequent collapse of the Khwarezmian Empire
, a Mongol
force under the command of generals Jebe
and Subutai
advanced into Iraq-i Ajam. Jebe requested permission from the Mongol leader, Genghis Khan
, to continue his conquests for a few years before returning to the main army via the Caucasus
. While waiting for Genghis Khan's reply, the duo set out on a raid in which they attacked Georgia
and killed its king. Genghis Khan granted the duo permission to undertake their expedition
, and after making their way through the Caucasus, they defeated a coalition of Caucasian tribes before defeating the Cumans. The Cuman Khan
fled to the court of his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav the Bold
of Galich, who he convinced to help fight the Mongols. Mstislav the Bold formed an alliance of the Rus' princes including Mstislav III of Kiev.
The combined Rus' army, at first, defeated the Mongol rearguard
. For several days, the Rus' pursued the Mongols but became spread out over a large distance. The Mongols stopped and assumed battle formation on the banks of the Kalka River. Mstislav the Bold, with his Cuman allies, attacked the Mongols without waiting for the rest of the Rus' army and were defeated. In the ensuing confusion, several other Rus' princes were defeated, and Mstislav of Kiev was forced to retreat to a fortified camp. After holding for three days, he surrendered in return for a promise of safe conduct for himself and his men. Once they surrendered, however, the Mongols slaughtered them and executed Mstislav of Kiev. Mstislav the Bold escaped, and the Mongols went back to Asia, where they joined Genghis Khan.
, Genghis Khan
, invaded the
Khwarezmian Empire
. In a campaign that lasted three years, Genghis Khan and his general
s destroyed the Khwarezmian
armies and caused the empire to disintegrate. The Khwarezmian Sultan
Ala ad-Din Muhammad
succumbed to disease on an island in the Caspian Sea
, leaving his son, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu
landless.
When Jebe
(one of the Mongol generals pursuing Muhammad) heard of Ala ad-Din Muhammad's death, he asked Genghis Khan for a year or two to continue his conquests before returning to Mongolia
via the Caucasus
'.
While awaiting Genghis' reply, Jebe and Subutai
(another general pursuing Muhammad) led their army of 20,000 men, with each general commanding a tumen
. They left behind a trail of destruction as they moved through Iraq-i Ajam and Azerbaijan
, sacking the cities of Rey
, Zanjan
and Qazvin
. The city of Hamadan
surrendered without a struggle. Meanwhile, Özbeg, the Atabeg of Azerbaijan
, saved his capital, Tabriz
, and prevented his country's destruction by offering to the Mongols a large amount of money, clothing and horses, which were the Mongols' best weapons.
From Tabriz, the Mongols advanced north and made their winter base in the Mugan Steppes. There, the army was strengthened by the arrival of Kurdish
and Turcoman
freebooters, who offered their services to the Mongols.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 116
into the Kingdom of Georgia
, entering through the Kura River
. The goal of the Mongols was not to conquer the country but to plunder it, and the Kurds and Turcoman freebooters were sent off in the vanguard
. However, the King of Georgia, George IV Lasha
, advanced with 10,000 men and drove the Mongols back near Tbilisi
. The Mongols withdrew, but continued to launch counter-attack
s on the Georgian army. The Mongols then launched a full-scale attack and defeated the Georgian army, which Richard Gabriel states was made up of 70,000 men.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 117
In March 1221, the Mongols returned to Azerbaijan and besieged Maragheh
, using prisoners as the vanguard to take the brunt of each assault on the city. By the end of the month, they had captured the city and put most of the population to death. Jebe and Subutai planned to advance south and capture Baghdad
, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, and hold it for ransom
while the Caliph
was in Iraq-i Ajam with a small army. Instead, the Mongols turned once again to Hamadan. This time, however, the city's leaders failed to surrender, and its defenders inflicted many casualties upon the Mongol forces before their capture and plunder of the city.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 117
In late 1221, the Mongols advanced north into Georgia once again, entering through the Kura River. A Georgian army was waiting near Tbilisi, and when Subutai advanced, he feigned retreat. At this point, the Georgian cavalry followed Subutai's army into an ambush set by Jebe. The Georgian army suffered a heavy defeat, and King George was mortally wounded. The Mongols proceeded to plunder southern Georgia.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, pp. 117–8
Genghis Khan eventually granted Jebe permission and with Subutai as his second-in-command, the Mongols advanced to the city of Derbent
, which refused to surrender. Jebe promised to spare the city in return for the services of 10 guides to take them through the Caucasus. To warn the guide against playing any tricks, the Mongols executed one of them. The crossing of the Caucasus was costly for the Mongols, who had to abandon their siege engines and lost hundreds of men to the cold.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 118
After making it through the Caucasus, the Mongols were met by an alliance consisting of the Lezgians, the Alans
and the Cherkesses, tribes who were living north of the Caucasus who had mustered an army of around 50,000 men. They were joined by the Cumans
, a Turkish
people who owned an expansive khanate
stretching from Lake Balkhash
to the Black Sea
. The Cumans also convinced the Volga Bulgars and Khazars to join. The Cuman Khan
, Koten
, placed his army under the command of his brother, Yuri, and his son, Daniel. The first battle between the league and the Mongols was indecisive, but the Mongols managed to persuade the Cuman to abandon the alliance by reminding them of the Turkish-Mongol friendship and promising them a share of the booty gained from the Caucasian tribes.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 119
* Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410, p. 48
With this arrangement settled, the Mongols attacked the alliance's army and routed it. The Mongols then proceeded to attack the Cumans, who had split into two separate groups as they were returning home, destroying both armies and executing all the prisoners before sacking Astrakhan
.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, 119–120
* Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General, p. 97 The Mongols began pursuing the Cumans as they fled in a north-westerly direction.
The Venetians
sent a delegation to the Mongols, and they concluded an alliance in which it was agreed that the Mongols would destroy any other Europe
an trading post they came across. As the Mongols pursued the Cumans, Jebe sent a detachment to Crimea
, where the Republic of Genoa
had trading stations. The Mongols captured and plundered the Genoese city of Soldaia. Meanwhile, Koten fled to the court of his son-in-law, Prince
Mstislav the Bold
of Galich. He warned Mstislav: "Today the Mongols have taken our land and tomorrow they will take yours". However, the Cumans were ignored for almost a year as the Rus had suffered from Cumans raids for decades. But when news reached Kiev
that the Mongols were marching along the Dniester River, the Rus responded. Mstislav gathered an alliance of the Kievan Rus'
princes including Mstislav III of Kiev
and Prince Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal
, who promised support. The Rus princes then began mustering their armies and going towards the rendezvous point.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, pp. 119–120
The number of men present at the battle is disputed. A major factor in this is the fact that no primary sources give the number of men present at the battle, which leaves modern historians to estimate the number of men. Historian Leo de Hartog gives the size of the Rus' army as 30,000, while Richard Gabriel
and Hector Hugh Munro claim that the size of the Rus' army was 80,000.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, 120
* Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire, p. 81. de Hartog also estimates the size of the Mongol army as 20,000, while Gabriel estimates that it was around 23,000 men.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 118. However, historian John Fennell, an expert on Kievan Rus and early Russian history, and one well-versed in the primary sources, calls many of these figures into doubt, saying the numbers given in the Russian sources (there are no Mongol or Polovtsian sources, at least none that have survived, and other sources from other cultures, if they exist, are rather dubious) are formulaic or exaggerated and the chronicles contradict themselves.
The move by the Rus' army was detected by the Mongols, who were on the east side of the Dnieper River waiting for reinforcements from Jochi
, Genghis Khan's eldest son, who was campaigning around the Aral Sea
. Jochi, however, had become ill, which meant no reinforcements would be coming.
At the same time, the Rus' attempted to trap the Mongols. The Princes of Galich and Volhynia transported their armies south down the river, while the Princes of Kiev and Chernigov advanced north up the river, and the army of Kursk advanced from the front. At the same time, the Cumans attempted to attack the Mongol army's rear. When Jebe learned of this, he sent 10 envoys to the Prince of Kiev. The envoys stated that the Mongols had no feud with Rus and were only attacking the Cumans; they added that the Mongols were marching east, away from the Rus' cities. Mstislav of Kiev had the envoys executed, and the Mongols responded by sending another set of ambassadors, who declared war.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 120
* Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire, p. 81.
When Jebe and Subutai heard of the Rus' movements, they began moving east, away from Rus', which was the only direction in which they could move. However, they left a rearguard
of 1,000 under the command of an officer, Hamabek, to report of the Rus movements. Soon, Mstislav the Bold, reached the river opposite the rearguard, and it became apparent that no Prince had been appointed commander-in-chief. Thus, all the Princes could act as they pleased. Eventually, Mstislav crossed the river under heavy arrow
fire. When the Rus' landed, however, their numbers were too great, and the Mongols were killed to the last man.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 121.
After drawing out the Rus armies for nine days in a feigned retreat, the Mongol army turned to face their pursuers along the Kalka River (the river's location is currently unknown, but it is thought to be the Kalchik River
which flows into the Sea of Azov
.* Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General p. 99.
The Russian primary sources give only a very general account of the battle itself and the pursuit of the princes back across the steppe. The chronicles name which princes took part and which died, but not much more in terms of the size of armies or casualties. As to the actual battle itself, the chronicles report that the Polovtsy broke and ran without having fought and that their flight through the Russian ranks led to mass confusion and resulted in their slaughter by the Mongols.
At the same time, the Mongol wings closed around the shattered Rus' army, cutting off its retreat. The surrounded Rus' were hit by volley after volley, accompanied by occasional cavalry charges. As the Mongols were carrying this annihilation out, some of the army – led by Mstislav the Bold – managed to cut their way through the Mongol ring and escape.* Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General p. 100.
Mstislav of Kiev arrived to see what remained of the Rus' army fleeing. With his contingent of 10,000 men, he retreated to his stockade
d camp, on a hill by the Dnieper. The pursuing Mongol army caught up with Mstislav of Kiev's forces and started to besiege the camp. Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan army managed to hold out for three days, but Mstislav of Kiev decided to surrender to Jebe on the condition that he and his army would be able to return unharmed to Kiev. Once in control of the camp, the Mongols slaughtered the Kievan army and took Mstislav of Kiev and several other nobles prisoners.
gives a number of 10,000 killed while the much later (and much less reliable) Nikonian Chronicle cites 60,000 killed. The Novgorodian First Chronicle (the most reliable), contemporary to the battle, gives no figures at all. Out of the Rus' princes, the wounded Daniel of Volhynia and Mstislav the Bold managed to escape the battle. This battle was a significant defeat, given that many of the Rus principalities lost much of their armies, with the notable exception of Vladimir-Suzdal. Historian Robert Marshall
describes the raid as follows: "The rest of Subedai's campaign has entered the annals of military history as one of the greatest adventures of cavalry warfare."
The Mongols executed Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan nobles in the traditional Mongol manner reserved for royalty and nobility; without shedding blood. Mstislav and his nobles were buried and suffocated under the Mongol general's victory platform at the victory feast. Meanwhile, Mstislav the Bold managed to reach the western side and the Dnieper with what remained of his army. To stop the Mongols from crossing to the western side of the Dnieper, Mstislav destroyed all the boats he could find.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, 122
* Hector Hugh Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire, p. 84.
What the Rus' feared would happen did not as the Mongols pursued the Prince of Galich and plundered a few towns in the south before turning around. The Mongol army crossed the Volga River
near modern-day Volgograd
and passed through Volga Bulgaria
, where they were defeated in an ambush by the Bulgars
. The Mongol army encountered the Bulgars in another battle in which they routed the Bulgars. The Mongols followed this up by attacking the Kanglis Cumans, who had supported their fellow Cumans in the Caucasus a year before. They fought against the Cuman army near the Ural Mountains
, defeating and killing the Khan before making them pay tribute.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 122
Following this victory, the Mongols turned east and met Genghis Khan and the rest of the Mongol army in the steppes to the east of the Syr Darya
River. Genghis Khan showed great appreciation for his general's achievements and heaped praise on Jebe and Subutai. Jebe, however, did not survive the campaign long; he died soon afterwards.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 123 The importance of the expedition was immense. The expedition was history's longest cavalry raid
, with the Mongols riding 5500 miles (8,851.4 km) in three years. Subutai also stationed numerous spies in Russia, who provided frequent reports on what was happening in Europe and Russia. In 1237, Subutai together with Batu
led another attack on Rus, this time with 120,000 men and with this army, he conquered Kievan Rus'
.
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
(led by Jebe
Jebe
Chepe Noyan was one of the prominent Noyans of Genghis Khan. His clan was Besud, which belonged to the Taichud tribe, which was at the time of Genghis Khan under Targudai Khiriltug's leadership....
and Subutai
Subutai
Subutai was the primary military strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan...
) and Kiev
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
, Galich, and several other Rus' principalities and the Cumans
Cumans
The Cumans were Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman-Kipchak confederation. After Mongol invasion , they decided to seek asylum in Hungary, and subsequently to Bulgaria...
, under the command of Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav Mstislavich the Bold was one of the most popular and active princes of Kievan Rus' in the decades preceding Mongol invasion of Rus. He was the maternal grandfather of Alexander Nevsky and the prince Leo of Galicia....
and Mstislav III of Kiev
Mstislav III of Kiev
Mstislav Romanovich the Old , Prince of Pskov , Smolensk , Belgorod , Halych and Grand Prince of Kiev...
. The battle was fought on the banks of the Kalka River (in present-day Donetsk Oblast
Donetsk Oblast
Donetsk Oblast is an oblast of eastern Ukraine. Its administrative center is Donetsk. Historically, the province is an important part of the Donbas region...
, Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
) and ended in a Mongol victory.
Following the Mongol invasion of Central Asia
Mongol invasion of Central Asia
The Mongol invasion of Central Asia occurred after the unification of the Mongol and Turkic tribes on Mongolian plateau in 1206. It finally completed when Genghis Khan conquered the Khwarizmian Empire in 1221....
and the subsequent collapse of the Khwarezmian Empire
Khwarezmian Empire
The Khwarazmian dynasty or Khwarezmian dynasty, also known as Khwarezmids, dynasty of Khwarazm Shahs or Khwarezm-Shah dynasty was a Persianate Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin.They ruled Greater Iran in the High Middle Ages, in the period of about 1077 to 1231, first as vassals of...
, a Mongol
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
force under the command of generals Jebe
Jebe
Chepe Noyan was one of the prominent Noyans of Genghis Khan. His clan was Besud, which belonged to the Taichud tribe, which was at the time of Genghis Khan under Targudai Khiriltug's leadership....
and Subutai
Subutai
Subutai was the primary military strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan...
advanced into Iraq-i Ajam. Jebe requested permission from the Mongol leader, Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
, to continue his conquests for a few years before returning to the main army via the Caucasus
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...
. While waiting for Genghis Khan's reply, the duo set out on a raid in which they attacked Georgia
Kingdom of Georgia
The Kingdom of Georgia was a medieval monarchy established in AD 978 by Bagrat III.It flourished during the 11th and 12th centuries, the so-called "golden age" of the history of Georgia. It fell to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, but managed to re-assert sovereignty by 1327...
and killed its king. Genghis Khan granted the duo permission to undertake their expedition
Exploration
Exploration is the act of searching or traveling around a terrain for the purpose of discovery of resources or information. Exploration occurs in all non-sessile animal species, including humans...
, and after making their way through the Caucasus, they defeated a coalition of Caucasian tribes before defeating the Cumans. The Cuman Khan
Khan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
fled to the court of his son-in-law, Prince Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav Mstislavich the Bold was one of the most popular and active princes of Kievan Rus' in the decades preceding Mongol invasion of Rus. He was the maternal grandfather of Alexander Nevsky and the prince Leo of Galicia....
of Galich, who he convinced to help fight the Mongols. Mstislav the Bold formed an alliance of the Rus' princes including Mstislav III of Kiev.
The combined Rus' army, at first, defeated the Mongol rearguard
Rearguard
Rearguard may refer to:* A military detachment protecting the rear of a larger military formation, especially when retreating from a pursuing enemy force. * Rear Guard , a computer game released in 1982...
. For several days, the Rus' pursued the Mongols but became spread out over a large distance. The Mongols stopped and assumed battle formation on the banks of the Kalka River. Mstislav the Bold, with his Cuman allies, attacked the Mongols without waiting for the rest of the Rus' army and were defeated. In the ensuing confusion, several other Rus' princes were defeated, and Mstislav of Kiev was forced to retreat to a fortified camp. After holding for three days, he surrendered in return for a promise of safe conduct for himself and his men. Once they surrendered, however, the Mongols slaughtered them and executed Mstislav of Kiev. Mstislav the Bold escaped, and the Mongols went back to Asia, where they joined Genghis Khan.
Background
In 1219, in retaliation for the murders of his ambassadors, the Mongol KhanKhan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
, Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
, invaded the
Mongol invasion of Central Asia
The Mongol invasion of Central Asia occurred after the unification of the Mongol and Turkic tribes on Mongolian plateau in 1206. It finally completed when Genghis Khan conquered the Khwarizmian Empire in 1221....
Khwarezmian Empire
Khwarezmian Empire
The Khwarazmian dynasty or Khwarezmian dynasty, also known as Khwarezmids, dynasty of Khwarazm Shahs or Khwarezm-Shah dynasty was a Persianate Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin.They ruled Greater Iran in the High Middle Ages, in the period of about 1077 to 1231, first as vassals of...
. In a campaign that lasted three years, Genghis Khan and his general
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
s destroyed the Khwarezmian
Khwarezmian Empire
The Khwarazmian dynasty or Khwarezmian dynasty, also known as Khwarezmids, dynasty of Khwarazm Shahs or Khwarezm-Shah dynasty was a Persianate Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin.They ruled Greater Iran in the High Middle Ages, in the period of about 1077 to 1231, first as vassals of...
armies and caused the empire to disintegrate. The Khwarezmian Sultan
Sultan
Sultan is a title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", and "dictatorship", derived from the masdar سلطة , meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who...
Ala ad-Din Muhammad
Muhammad II of Khwarezm
Ala ad-Din Muhammad II was the ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire from 1200 to 1220. His ancestor was a Turkic slave who eventually became a viceroy of a small province named Khwarizm. After his father died, Muhammad inherited his father's lands, and it was from there he began expanding outwards...
succumbed to disease on an island in the Caspian Sea
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. The sea has a surface area of and a volume of...
, leaving his son, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu
Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu
Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, also known as Mengübirti or Manguberdi or Minkburny in the east was the last ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire...
landless.
When Jebe
Jebe
Chepe Noyan was one of the prominent Noyans of Genghis Khan. His clan was Besud, which belonged to the Taichud tribe, which was at the time of Genghis Khan under Targudai Khiriltug's leadership....
(one of the Mongol generals pursuing Muhammad) heard of Ala ad-Din Muhammad's death, he asked Genghis Khan for a year or two to continue his conquests before returning to Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
via the Caucasus
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...
'.
While awaiting Genghis' reply, Jebe and Subutai
Subutai
Subutai was the primary military strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan...
(another general pursuing Muhammad) led their army of 20,000 men, with each general commanding a tumen
Tumen
Tumen or Tümen was a part of the decimal system used by Turkic and Mongol peoples to organize their armies. Tumen is an army unit of 10,000 soldiers...
. They left behind a trail of destruction as they moved through Iraq-i Ajam and Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan , officially the Republic of Azerbaijan is the largest country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to...
, sacking the cities of Rey
Rey, Iran
Rey or Ray , also known as Rhages and formerly as Arsacia, is the capital of Rey County, Tehran Province, Iran, and is the oldest existing city in the province....
, Zanjan
Zanjan (city)
Zanjan is the capital of Zanjan Province in northwestern Iran. It is an Azeri inhabited city. It lies 298 km north-west of Tehran on the main highway to Tabriz and Turkey and approximately 125 km from the Caspian Sea...
and Qazvin
Qazvin
Qazvin is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 349,821, in 96,420 families....
. The city of Hamadan
Hamadan
-Culture:Hamadan is home to many poets and cultural celebrities. The city is also said to be among the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities.Handicrafts: Hamadan has always been well known for handicrafts like leather, ceramic, and beautiful carpets....
surrendered without a struggle. Meanwhile, Özbeg, the Atabeg of Azerbaijan
Atabegs of Azerbaijan
The Ildegizids, Eldiguzids or Ildenizids, also known as Atabegs of Azerbaijan were a Turkic dynasty of Kipchak origin which controlled most of northwestern Persia/eastern Transcaucasia, including Arran, most of Azerbaijan, and Djibal...
, saved his capital, Tabriz
Tabriz
Tabriz is the fourth largest city and one of the historical capitals of Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quri River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former...
, and prevented his country's destruction by offering to the Mongols a large amount of money, clothing and horses, which were the Mongols' best weapons.
From Tabriz, the Mongols advanced north and made their winter base in the Mugan Steppes. There, the army was strengthened by the arrival of Kurdish
Kurdish people
The Kurdish people, or Kurds , are an Iranian people native to the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a region known as Kurdistan, which includes adjacent parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey...
and Turcoman
Turkmen people
The Turkmen are a Turkic people located primarily in the Central Asian states of Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and northeastern Iran. They speak the Turkmen language, which is classified as a part of the Western Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages family together with Turkish, Azerbaijani, Qashqai,...
freebooters, who offered their services to the Mongols.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 116
Caucasus raid
At the same time, Jebe's and Subutai's attention had turned elsewhere. In January and February 1221, they made a reconnaissanceReconnaissance
Reconnaissance is the military term for exploring beyond the area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about enemy forces or features of the environment....
into the Kingdom of Georgia
Kingdom of Georgia
The Kingdom of Georgia was a medieval monarchy established in AD 978 by Bagrat III.It flourished during the 11th and 12th centuries, the so-called "golden age" of the history of Georgia. It fell to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, but managed to re-assert sovereignty by 1327...
, entering through the Kura River
Kura River
Kura is a river, also known from the Greek as the Cyrus in the Caucasus Mountains. Starting in north-eastern Turkey, it flows through Turkey to Georgia, then to Azerbaijan, where it receives the Aras River as a right tributary, and enters the Caspian Sea...
. The goal of the Mongols was not to conquer the country but to plunder it, and the Kurds and Turcoman freebooters were sent off in the vanguard
Vanguard (military tactics)
The vanguard is the leading part of an advancing military formation. It has a number of functions, including seeking out the enemy and securing ground in advance of the main force.- Medieval origins :...
. However, the King of Georgia, George IV Lasha
George IV of Georgia
George IV Lasha of the Bagrationi Dynasty, was a king of Georgia from 1213 to 1223....
, advanced with 10,000 men and drove the Mongols back near Tbilisi
Tbilisi
Tbilisi is the capital and the largest city of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari River. The name is derived from an early Georgian form T'pilisi and it was officially known as Tiflis until 1936...
. The Mongols withdrew, but continued to launch counter-attack
Counter-Attack
Counter-Attack is a 1945 war film starring Paul Muni and Marguerite Chapman as two Russians trapped in a collapsed building with seven enemy German soldiers during World War II...
s on the Georgian army. The Mongols then launched a full-scale attack and defeated the Georgian army, which Richard Gabriel states was made up of 70,000 men.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 117
In March 1221, the Mongols returned to Azerbaijan and besieged Maragheh
Maragheh
Maragheh also Romanized as Marāgheh and Marāghen) is a city in and the capital of Maragheh County, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 146,405, in 38,891 families....
, using prisoners as the vanguard to take the brunt of each assault on the city. By the end of the month, they had captured the city and put most of the population to death. Jebe and Subutai planned to advance south and capture Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, and hold it for ransom
Ransom
Ransom is the practice of holding a prisoner or item to extort money or property to secure their release, or it can refer to the sum of money involved.In an early German law, a similar concept was called bad influence...
while the Caliph
Caliph
The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word which means "successor" or "representative"...
was in Iraq-i Ajam with a small army. Instead, the Mongols turned once again to Hamadan. This time, however, the city's leaders failed to surrender, and its defenders inflicted many casualties upon the Mongol forces before their capture and plunder of the city.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 117
In late 1221, the Mongols advanced north into Georgia once again, entering through the Kura River. A Georgian army was waiting near Tbilisi, and when Subutai advanced, he feigned retreat. At this point, the Georgian cavalry followed Subutai's army into an ambush set by Jebe. The Georgian army suffered a heavy defeat, and King George was mortally wounded. The Mongols proceeded to plunder southern Georgia.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, pp. 117–8
Prelude
Derbent
Derbent |Lak]]: Чурул, Churul; Persian: دربند; Judæo-Tat: דארבּאנד/Дэрбэнд/Dərbənd) is a city in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, close to the Azerbaijani border. It is the southernmost city in Russia, and it is the second most important city of Dagestan...
, which refused to surrender. Jebe promised to spare the city in return for the services of 10 guides to take them through the Caucasus. To warn the guide against playing any tricks, the Mongols executed one of them. The crossing of the Caucasus was costly for the Mongols, who had to abandon their siege engines and lost hundreds of men to the cold.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 118
After making it through the Caucasus, the Mongols were met by an alliance consisting of the Lezgians, the Alans
Alans
The Alans, or the Alani, occasionally termed Alauni or Halani, were a group of Sarmatian tribes, nomadic pastoralists of the 1st millennium AD who spoke an Eastern Iranian language which derived from Scytho-Sarmatian and which in turn evolved into modern Ossetian.-Name:The various forms of Alan —...
and the Cherkesses, tribes who were living north of the Caucasus who had mustered an army of around 50,000 men. They were joined by the Cumans
Cumans
The Cumans were Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman-Kipchak confederation. After Mongol invasion , they decided to seek asylum in Hungary, and subsequently to Bulgaria...
, a Turkish
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are peoples residing in northern, central and western Asia, southern Siberia and northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
people who owned an expansive khanate
Khanate
Khanate, or Chanat, is a Turco-Mongol-originated word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. In modern Turkish, the word used is kağanlık, and in modern Azeri of the republic of Azerbaijan, xanlıq. In Mongolian the word khanlig is used, as in "Khereidiin Khanlig" meaning the Khanate...
stretching from Lake Balkhash
Lake Balkhash
Lake Balkhash is one of the largest lakes in Asia and 12th largest continental lake in the world. It is located in southeastern Kazakhstan, in Central Asia, and belongs to an endorheic basin shared by Kazakhstan and China, with a small part in Kyrgyzstan. The basin drains into the lake via seven...
to the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
. The Cumans also convinced the Volga Bulgars and Khazars to join. The Cuman Khan
Khan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
, Koten
Köten
Köten was a Cuman khan and member of the Terter clan. This Köten is the same Prince Kotjan Sutoevic of the Russian annals, who forged the Russian-Cuman alliance against the Tatars...
, placed his army under the command of his brother, Yuri, and his son, Daniel. The first battle between the league and the Mongols was indecisive, but the Mongols managed to persuade the Cuman to abandon the alliance by reminding them of the Turkish-Mongol friendship and promising them a share of the booty gained from the Caucasian tribes.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 119
* Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410, p. 48
With this arrangement settled, the Mongols attacked the alliance's army and routed it. The Mongols then proceeded to attack the Cumans, who had split into two separate groups as they were returning home, destroying both armies and executing all the prisoners before sacking Astrakhan
Astrakhan
Astrakhan is a major city in southern European Russia and the administrative center of Astrakhan Oblast. The city lies on the left bank of the Volga River, close to where it discharges into the Caspian Sea at an altitude of below the sea level. Population:...
.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, 119–120
* Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General, p. 97 The Mongols began pursuing the Cumans as they fled in a north-westerly direction.
The Venetians
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
sent a delegation to the Mongols, and they concluded an alliance in which it was agreed that the Mongols would destroy any other Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an trading post they came across. As the Mongols pursued the Cumans, Jebe sent a detachment to Crimea
Crimea
Crimea , or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea , is a sub-national unit, an autonomous republic, of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name...
, where the Republic of Genoa
Republic of Genoa
The Most Serene Republic of Genoa |Ligurian]]: Repúbrica de Zêna) was an independent state from 1005 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast, as well as Corsica from 1347 to 1768, and numerous other territories throughout the Mediterranean....
had trading stations. The Mongols captured and plundered the Genoese city of Soldaia. Meanwhile, Koten fled to the court of his son-in-law, Prince
Prince
Prince is a general term for a ruler, monarch or member of a monarch's or former monarch's family, and is a hereditary title in the nobility of some European states. The feminine equivalent is a princess...
Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav the Bold
Mstislav Mstislavich the Bold was one of the most popular and active princes of Kievan Rus' in the decades preceding Mongol invasion of Rus. He was the maternal grandfather of Alexander Nevsky and the prince Leo of Galicia....
of Galich. He warned Mstislav: "Today the Mongols have taken our land and tomorrow they will take yours". However, the Cumans were ignored for almost a year as the Rus had suffered from Cumans raids for decades. But when news reached Kiev
Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
that the Mongols were marching along the Dniester River, the Rus responded. Mstislav gathered an alliance of the Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
princes including Mstislav III of Kiev
Mstislav III of Kiev
Mstislav Romanovich the Old , Prince of Pskov , Smolensk , Belgorod , Halych and Grand Prince of Kiev...
and Prince Yuri II of Vladimir-Suzdal
Vladimir-Suzdal
The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality or Vladimir-Suzdal Rus’ was one of the major principalities which succeeded Kievan Rus' in the late 12th century and lasted until the late 14th century. For a long time the Principality was a vassal of the Mongolian Golden Horde...
, who promised support. The Rus princes then began mustering their armies and going towards the rendezvous point.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, pp. 119–120
Initial moves
Richard Gabriel
Richard P. Gabriel is an expert on the Lisp programming language in computing. His best known work was a 1990 essay “Lisp: Good News, Bad News, How to Win Big”, which incorporated the phrase Worse is Better, and his set of Lisp benchmarks , published in 1985 as Performance and evaluation of Lisp...
and Hector Hugh Munro claim that the size of the Rus' army was 80,000.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, 120
* Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire, p. 81. de Hartog also estimates the size of the Mongol army as 20,000, while Gabriel estimates that it was around 23,000 men.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 118. However, historian John Fennell, an expert on Kievan Rus and early Russian history, and one well-versed in the primary sources, calls many of these figures into doubt, saying the numbers given in the Russian sources (there are no Mongol or Polovtsian sources, at least none that have survived, and other sources from other cultures, if they exist, are rather dubious) are formulaic or exaggerated and the chronicles contradict themselves.
The move by the Rus' army was detected by the Mongols, who were on the east side of the Dnieper River waiting for reinforcements from Jochi
Jochi
Jochi was the eldest of the Mongol chieftain Genghis Khan's four sons by his principal wife Börte. An accomplished military leader, he participated in his father's conquest of Central Asia, along with his brothers and uncles.-Early life:...
, Genghis Khan's eldest son, who was campaigning around the Aral Sea
Aral Sea
The Aral Sea was a lake that lay between Kazakhstan in the north and Karakalpakstan, an autonomous region of Uzbekistan, in the south...
. Jochi, however, had become ill, which meant no reinforcements would be coming.
At the same time, the Rus' attempted to trap the Mongols. The Princes of Galich and Volhynia transported their armies south down the river, while the Princes of Kiev and Chernigov advanced north up the river, and the army of Kursk advanced from the front. At the same time, the Cumans attempted to attack the Mongol army's rear. When Jebe learned of this, he sent 10 envoys to the Prince of Kiev. The envoys stated that the Mongols had no feud with Rus and were only attacking the Cumans; they added that the Mongols were marching east, away from the Rus' cities. Mstislav of Kiev had the envoys executed, and the Mongols responded by sending another set of ambassadors, who declared war.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 120
* Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire, p. 81.
When Jebe and Subutai heard of the Rus' movements, they began moving east, away from Rus', which was the only direction in which they could move. However, they left a rearguard
Rearguard
Rearguard may refer to:* A military detachment protecting the rear of a larger military formation, especially when retreating from a pursuing enemy force. * Rear Guard , a computer game released in 1982...
of 1,000 under the command of an officer, Hamabek, to report of the Rus movements. Soon, Mstislav the Bold, reached the river opposite the rearguard, and it became apparent that no Prince had been appointed commander-in-chief. Thus, all the Princes could act as they pleased. Eventually, Mstislav crossed the river under heavy arrow
Arrow
An arrow is a shafted projectile that is shot with a bow. It predates recorded history and is common to most cultures.An arrow usually consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other.- History:...
fire. When the Rus' landed, however, their numbers were too great, and the Mongols were killed to the last man.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 121.
Rus' attack
Kalchik River
The Kal'chik is a river in the Donetsk Oblast of Ukraine. It flows from Listvanka into the Kalmius, which it enters near the city of Mariupol. Supposedly it was the scene of the Battle of the Kalka River between the Mongol Empire and Kievan Rus' in 1223....
which flows into the Sea of Azov
Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov , known in Classical Antiquity as Lake Maeotis, is a sea on the south of Eastern Europe. It is linked by the narrow Strait of Kerch to the Black Sea to the south and is bounded on the north by Ukraine mainland, on the east by Russia, and on the west by the Ukraine's Crimean...
.* Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General p. 99.
The Russian primary sources give only a very general account of the battle itself and the pursuit of the princes back across the steppe. The chronicles name which princes took part and which died, but not much more in terms of the size of armies or casualties. As to the actual battle itself, the chronicles report that the Polovtsy broke and ran without having fought and that their flight through the Russian ranks led to mass confusion and resulted in their slaughter by the Mongols.
Rus' defeat
The armies of Volhynia and Kursk made a gap in their line so that the fleeing Cumans could retreat. However, the Mongol heavy cavalry charged through the newly formed gap. The army of Chernigov, which was not aware that the battle had started, was advancing when they collided head-on with the retreating Cumans. The Mongol cavalry took advantage of the confusion in the Chernigov line and attacked, causing the line to collapse. This, in turn, led to the death of Prince Mstislav of Chernigov.- Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General, p. 100
* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 122.
At the same time, the Mongol wings closed around the shattered Rus' army, cutting off its retreat. The surrounded Rus' were hit by volley after volley, accompanied by occasional cavalry charges. As the Mongols were carrying this annihilation out, some of the army – led by Mstislav the Bold – managed to cut their way through the Mongol ring and escape.* Gabriel, Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General p. 100.
Mstislav of Kiev arrived to see what remained of the Rus' army fleeing. With his contingent of 10,000 men, he retreated to his stockade
Stockade
A stockade is an enclosure of palisades and tall walls made of logs placed side by side vertically with the tops sharpened to provide security.-Stockade as a security fence:...
d camp, on a hill by the Dnieper. The pursuing Mongol army caught up with Mstislav of Kiev's forces and started to besiege the camp. Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan army managed to hold out for three days, but Mstislav of Kiev decided to surrender to Jebe on the condition that he and his army would be able to return unharmed to Kiev. Once in control of the camp, the Mongols slaughtered the Kievan army and took Mstislav of Kiev and several other nobles prisoners.
Aftermath
The battle was a very costly defeat for the Rus' princes, with Richard Gabriel claiming that they lost 50,000 men, while the Mongol losses were minimal. Out of the Rus' primary sources, The Primary ChroniclePrimary Chronicle
The Primary Chronicle , Ruthenian Primary Chronicle or Russian Primary Chronicle, is a history of Kievan Rus' from about 850 to 1110, originally compiled in Kiev about 1113.- Three editions :...
gives a number of 10,000 killed while the much later (and much less reliable) Nikonian Chronicle cites 60,000 killed. The Novgorodian First Chronicle (the most reliable), contemporary to the battle, gives no figures at all. Out of the Rus' princes, the wounded Daniel of Volhynia and Mstislav the Bold managed to escape the battle. This battle was a significant defeat, given that many of the Rus principalities lost much of their armies, with the notable exception of Vladimir-Suzdal. Historian Robert Marshall
Robert Marshall
Robert Marshall may refer to:* Robert Marshall , former basketball coach at the University of Richmond* Robert Marshall was a businessman and politician in New Brunswick, Canada...
describes the raid as follows: "The rest of Subedai's campaign has entered the annals of military history as one of the greatest adventures of cavalry warfare."
The Mongols executed Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan nobles in the traditional Mongol manner reserved for royalty and nobility; without shedding blood. Mstislav and his nobles were buried and suffocated under the Mongol general's victory platform at the victory feast. Meanwhile, Mstislav the Bold managed to reach the western side and the Dnieper with what remained of his army. To stop the Mongols from crossing to the western side of the Dnieper, Mstislav destroyed all the boats he could find.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, 122
* Hector Hugh Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire, p. 84.
What the Rus' feared would happen did not as the Mongols pursued the Prince of Galich and plundered a few towns in the south before turning around. The Mongol army crossed the Volga River
Volga River
The Volga is the largest river in Europe in terms of length, discharge, and watershed. It flows through central Russia, and is widely viewed as the national river of Russia. Out of the twenty largest cities of Russia, eleven, including the capital Moscow, are situated in the Volga's drainage...
near modern-day Volgograd
Volgograd
Volgograd , formerly called Tsaritsyn and Stalingrad is an important industrial city and the administrative center of Volgograd Oblast, Russia. It is long, north to south, situated on the western bank of the Volga River...
and passed through Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, or Volga–Kama Bolghar, is a historic Bulgar state that existed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers in what is now Russia.-Origin:...
, where they were defeated in an ambush by the Bulgars
Bulgars
The Bulgars were a semi-nomadic who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century.The Bulgars emerge after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century....
. The Mongol army encountered the Bulgars in another battle in which they routed the Bulgars. The Mongols followed this up by attacking the Kanglis Cumans, who had supported their fellow Cumans in the Caucasus a year before. They fought against the Cuman army near the Ural Mountains
Ural Mountains
The Ural Mountains , or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the Ural River and northwestern Kazakhstan. Their eastern side is usually considered the natural boundary between Europe and Asia...
, defeating and killing the Khan before making them pay tribute.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 122
Following this victory, the Mongols turned east and met Genghis Khan and the rest of the Mongol army in the steppes to the east of the Syr Darya
Syr Darya
The Syr Darya , also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo, is a river in Central Asia, sometimes known as the Jaxartes or Yaxartes from its Ancient Greek name . The Greek name is derived from Old Persian, Yakhsha Arta , a reference to the color of the river's water...
River. Genghis Khan showed great appreciation for his general's achievements and heaped praise on Jebe and Subutai. Jebe, however, did not survive the campaign long; he died soon afterwards.* de Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World, p. 123 The importance of the expedition was immense. The expedition was history's longest cavalry raid
Cavalry tactics
For much of history , humans have used some form of cavalry for war. Cavalry tactics have evolved over time...
, with the Mongols riding 5500 miles (8,851.4 km) in three years. Subutai also stationed numerous spies in Russia, who provided frequent reports on what was happening in Europe and Russia. In 1237, Subutai together with Batu
Batu Khan
Batu Khan was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Ulus of Jochi , the sub-khanate of the Mongol Empire. Batu was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. His ulus was the chief state of the Golden Horde , which ruled Rus and the Caucasus for around 250 years, after also destroying the armies...
led another attack on Rus, this time with 120,000 men and with this army, he conquered Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
.
Printed sources
- Cross, Samuel Hazzard, and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, trans. (1953). Russian Primary Chronicle. Lavrentian Text Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America.
- Fennell, John (1983). The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200-1304. London and New York: Longman. ISBN 0-582-48150-3
- Gabriel, Richard (2004). Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-97582-7
- de Hartog, Leo (1989). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-139-6
- Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-36896-0
- Marshall, Robert (1993). Storm from the East: From Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08300-8
- Martin, Janet (1995). Medieval Russia: 980–1584. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39276-8
- Michell, Robert, and Neville Forbes, eds. and trans. (1914). The Chronicle of Novgorod (1914). London: Camden Society.
- Hugh Munro, Hector (1900). The Rise of the Russian Empire. G. Richards.
- Wallace, Robert (1967). Rise of Russia. Time-Life Books. ISBN 0-900658-37-1
Online sources
- The Chronicle of Novgorod online: http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/MF1914.pdf
Further reading
- Golitsin, N.S., Russian military history, St.Petersburg, 1877, Vol. 4, Part I, pp. 107–109.
- Chronicle tales of Tatar-Mongol invasion/Military tales of Ancient Rus, Moscow, 1985, pp. 70–95