Battle of the Pearl River Forts
Encyclopedia
The Battle of the Pearl River Forts, or the Battle of the Barrier Forts, in late 1856, was an amphibious assault and short occupation
conducted by the United States
Navy against a series of forts along China's
Pearl River
. It was fought at the beginning of the Second Opium War
and was considered an important defeat by the British who were interested in capturing the nearby city of Canton.
After a peaceful landing the Americans occupied the ancient city. Commanded by both Commodore James Armstrong
and Captain
Henry H. Bell
, arrived in Canton's harbor
and learned of the occupation. San Jacinto then landed a shore party of her own.
On November 15, 1856, after a brief stay and no military contact, the force withdrew from the city. During the withdrawal, Commander
Andrew H. Foote of the Portsmouth paddled out to his ship. As he paddled past the Pearl River Forts, the Chinese garrison
fired on the small American boat a few times but the withdrawal continued.
The next day the U.S. seamen had constructed a plan to attack Canton's citadel
s in retaliation for the Chinese attack on Commander Foote.
, the squadron
under James Armstrong managed their way up Pearl River and launched an attack on Canton's coastal forts. USS Portsmouth closed in on the nearest of the four citadels and fired the initial salvo
on November 16.
For two hours her bombardment continued until the Chinese batteries
were silenced. After this first engagement, Chinese and American officials decided to try to settle the matter diplomatically. This failed and on November 20, Commodore Armstrong ordered his ships to fire again on two more of the Chinese forts.
This bombardment lasted until the Chinese batteries weakened a bit, and after Levant, commanded by William N. Smith, received a total of twenty-two cannon
ball shots in her sails, rigging and hull
. Then the landing force was activated, led by Andrew Foote, the force of 287 men quickly captured the first enemy fort, then used its fifty-three guns to attack and capture the second fort.
Once taking the second position, the Chinese
launched several counter attacks with some 3,000 Qing Army
soldiers from Canton. In a few more days of intense combat until November 24, the U.S. force, with help from the blockade
, pushed back the attacking Chinese army, killing and wounding dozens of the attackers, capturing two more of Pearl Rivers's forts and spiking 176 enemy guns in the process.
Chinese casualties were an estimated 500 killed or wounded, hundreds of Qing troops became victims in the long bombardment
s and assaults. The Americans land forces sustained ten killed and thirty-two wounded. USS Levant suffered one dead and six wounded in her exchange with the Pearl River Forts.
in the Second Opium War
. This ended the United States' participation in the conflict, until 1859 when Commodore Josiah Tattnall
in the chartered steamshipTowey Wan, participated in a battle
at the Taku Forts
which was ultimately unsuccessful. In 1857, the British and French would use Pearl River to attack Canton from water, resulting in the Battle of Canton
. America's opening of Asia continued into the 1860s with conflict, such as the Battle of Shimonoseki Straits and a following bombardment
, as well as an expedition to Korea in the 1870s.
Military occupation
Military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. The territory then becomes occupied territory.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
conducted by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
Navy against a series of forts along China's
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
Pearl River
Pearl River (China)
The Pearl River or less commonly, the "Guangdong River" or "Canton River" etc., , is an extensive river system in southern China. The name Pearl River is usually used as a catchment term to refer to the watersheds of the Xi Jiang , the Bei Jiang , and the Dong Jiang...
. It was fought at the beginning of the Second Opium War
Second Opium War
The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Second China War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war pitting the British Empire and the Second French Empire against the Qing Dynasty of China, lasting from 1856 to 1860...
and was considered an important defeat by the British who were interested in capturing the nearby city of Canton.
Background
Sailing off the Chinese coast and had received news of the beginning of the Second Opium War. The two sloops-of-war were tasked with protecting American lives by landing a 150 man detachment of marines and sailors in Canton.After a peaceful landing the Americans occupied the ancient city. Commanded by both Commodore James Armstrong
James Armstrong (Commodore)
Commodore James Armstrong was an officer in the United States Navy.Armstrong joined the United States Navy as a midshipman in 1809 and served on the sloop-of-war Frolic when it was seized by the British in 1814 during the War of 1812...
and Captain
Captain (naval)
Captain is the name most often given in English-speaking navies to the rank corresponding to command of the largest ships. The NATO rank code is OF-5, equivalent to an army full colonel....
Henry H. Bell
Henry H. Bell
Henry Haywood Bell was an admiral in the United States Navy during the American Civil War.-Biography:Bell was born in Orange County, North Carolina. Appointed a Midshipman on 4 August 1823, during the next two decades he served afloat in U.S...
, arrived in Canton's harbor
Harbor
A harbor or harbour , or haven, is a place where ships, boats, and barges can seek shelter from stormy weather, or else are stored for future use. Harbors can be natural or artificial...
and learned of the occupation. San Jacinto then landed a shore party of her own.
On November 15, 1856, after a brief stay and no military contact, the force withdrew from the city. During the withdrawal, Commander
Commander (United States)
In the United States, commander is a military rank that is also sometimes used as a military title, depending on the branch of service. It is also used as a rank or title in some organizations outside of the military, particularly in police and law enforcement.-Naval rank:In the United States...
Andrew H. Foote of the Portsmouth paddled out to his ship. As he paddled past the Pearl River Forts, the Chinese garrison
Garrison
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
fired on the small American boat a few times but the withdrawal continued.
The next day the U.S. seamen had constructed a plan to attack Canton's citadel
Citadel
A citadel is a fortress for protecting a town, sometimes incorporating a castle. The term derives from the same Latin root as the word "city", civis, meaning citizen....
s in retaliation for the Chinese attack on Commander Foote.
Battle
Now a force of one steam frigate and two sloopsSloop-of-war
In the 18th and most of the 19th centuries, a sloop-of-war was a warship with a single gun deck that carried up to eighteen guns. As the rating system covered all vessels with 20 guns and above, this meant that the term sloop-of-war actually encompassed all the unrated combat vessels including the...
, the squadron
Squadron (naval)
A squadron, or naval squadron, is a unit of 3-4 major warships, transport ships, submarines, or sometimes small craft that may be part of a larger task force or a fleet...
under James Armstrong managed their way up Pearl River and launched an attack on Canton's coastal forts. USS Portsmouth closed in on the nearest of the four citadels and fired the initial salvo
Salvo
A salvo is the simultaneous discharge of artillery or firearms including the firing of guns either to hit a target or to perform a salute.Troops armed with muzzleloaders required time in which to refill their arms with gun powder and shot...
on November 16.
For two hours her bombardment continued until the Chinese batteries
Artillery battery
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit of guns, mortars, rockets or missiles so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield communication and command and control, as well as to provide dispersion for its constituent gunnery crews and their systems...
were silenced. After this first engagement, Chinese and American officials decided to try to settle the matter diplomatically. This failed and on November 20, Commodore Armstrong ordered his ships to fire again on two more of the Chinese forts.
This bombardment lasted until the Chinese batteries weakened a bit, and after Levant, commanded by William N. Smith, received a total of twenty-two cannon
Cannon
A cannon is any piece of artillery that uses gunpowder or other usually explosive-based propellents to launch a projectile. Cannon vary in caliber, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in varying degrees,...
ball shots in her sails, rigging and hull
Hull (watercraft)
A hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present. The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline.The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type...
. Then the landing force was activated, led by Andrew Foote, the force of 287 men quickly captured the first enemy fort, then used its fifty-three guns to attack and capture the second fort.
Once taking the second position, the Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
launched several counter attacks with some 3,000 Qing Army
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
soldiers from Canton. In a few more days of intense combat until November 24, the U.S. force, with help from the blockade
Blockade
A blockade is an effort to cut off food, supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, either in part or totally. A blockade should not be confused with an embargo or sanctions, which are legal barriers to trade, and is distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually...
, pushed back the attacking Chinese army, killing and wounding dozens of the attackers, capturing two more of Pearl Rivers's forts and spiking 176 enemy guns in the process.
Chinese casualties were an estimated 500 killed or wounded, hundreds of Qing troops became victims in the long bombardment
Bombardment
A bombardment is an attack by artillery fire directed against fortifications, troops or towns and buildings.Prior to World War I the term term was only applied to the bombardment of defenceless or undefended objects, houses, public buildings, it was only loosely employed to describe artillery...
s and assaults. The Americans land forces sustained ten killed and thirty-two wounded. USS Levant suffered one dead and six wounded in her exchange with the Pearl River Forts.
Aftermath
After James Armstrong's attack on the Chinese fortifications, diplomatic efforts began again and the American and Chinese governments signed an agreement for U.S. neutralityNeutrality (international relations)
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
in the Second Opium War
Second Opium War
The Second Opium War, the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Second China War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a war pitting the British Empire and the Second French Empire against the Qing Dynasty of China, lasting from 1856 to 1860...
. This ended the United States' participation in the conflict, until 1859 when Commodore Josiah Tattnall
Josiah Tattnall
Commodore Josiah Tattnall, Jr. was an officer in the United States Navy during the War of 1812, the Second Barbary War, and the Mexican-American War. He later served in the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War....
in the chartered steamshipTowey Wan, participated in a battle
Battle of Taku Forts (1859)
The Second Battle of Taku Forts, in June 1859, was an Anglo-French attack on a series of Chinese forts protecting Taku, China during the Second Opium War...
at the Taku Forts
Taku Forts
The Dagu Forts , also called the Peiho Forts are forts located by the Hai River estuary, in Tanggu District, Tianjin municipality, in northeastern China. They are located 60 km southeast of the Tianjin urban center.-History:The first fort was built during the reign of the Ming Jiajing...
which was ultimately unsuccessful. In 1857, the British and French would use Pearl River to attack Canton from water, resulting in the Battle of Canton
Battle of Canton (1857)
The Battle of Canton was fought by British and French forces against China on 28–31 December 1857 during the Second Opium War.Although the British Royal Navy had destroyed the Chinese junks during the summer, an attack on Canton was delayed by the Indian Mutiny. British and French troops...
. America's opening of Asia continued into the 1860s with conflict, such as the Battle of Shimonoseki Straits and a following bombardment
Bombardment of Shimonoseki
The Battles for Shimonoseki refers to a series of military engagements in 1863 and 1864, fought to control Shimonoseki Straits by joint naval forces from the Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and the United States, against the Japanese feudal domain of Chōshū, which took place off and on the...
, as well as an expedition to Korea in the 1870s.