Behar
Encyclopedia
Behar, BeHar, Be-har, or B’har (בְּהַר — Hebrew
for "on the mount,” the fifth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parshah) is the 32nd weekly Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish
cycle of Torah reading
and the ninth in the book of Leviticus
. It constitutes Jews in the Diaspora
generally read it in May.
The lunisolar
Hebrew calendar
contains up to 55 week
s, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2011, 2014, and 2016), parshah Behar is read separately. In common years (for example, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018), parshah Behar is combined with the next parshah, Bechukotai
, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
, God
told Moses
to tell the Israelite
s the law of the Sabbatical year
for the land. The people could work the fields for six years, but in the seventh year the land was to have a Sabbath of complete rest during which the people were not to sow their fields, prune their vineyards, or reap the aftergrowth. They could, however, eat whatever the land produced on its own.
The people were further to hallow the 50th year, the Jubilee
year, and to proclaim release for all with a blast on the horn. Each Israelite was to return to his family and his ancestral land holding. In selling or buying property, the people were to charge only for the remaining number of crop years until the jubilee, when the land would be returned to its ancestral holder.
God promised to bless the people in the sixth year, so that the land would yield a crop sufficient for three years. God prohibited selling the land beyond reclaim, for God owned the land, and the people were but strangers living with God.
If one fell into straits and had to sell land, his nearest relative was to redeem what was sold. If one had no one to redeem, but prospered and acquired enough wealth, he could refund the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee, and return to his holding.
If one sold a house in a wall
ed city, one could redeem it for a year, and thereafter the house would pass to the purchaser beyond reclaim and not be released in the jubilee. But houses in villages without encircling walls were treated as open country subject to redemption and release through the jubilee. Levite
s were to have a permanent right of redemption for houses and property in the cities of the Levites. The unenclosed land about their cities could not be sold.
s, one was to let him live by one’s side as a kinsman and not exact from him interest. Israelites were not to lend money to countrymen at interest. If the kinsman continued in straits and had to give himself over to a creditor for debt, the creditor was not to subject him to the treatment of a slave
, but to treat him as a hired or bound laborer until the jubilee year, at which time he was to be freed to go back to his family and ancestral holding. Israelites were not to rule over such debtor Israelites ruthlessly. Israelites could, however, buy and own as inheritable property slaves from other nations.
If an Israelite fell into straits and came under a resident alien’s authority by virtue of his debts, the Israelite debtor was to have the right of redemption. A relative was to redeem him or, if he prospered, he could redeem himself by paying the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee.
. In the Hebrew Bible
, Yom Kippur is called:
Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of Tishrei
, precedes the Festival of Sukkot, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, Exodus speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of Nisan
preparatory to the Festival of Passover, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.
and and present similar injunctions to observe Yom Kippur. and and set the Holy Day on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishrei). and and instruct that “you shall afflict your souls.” makes clear that a full day is intended: “you shall afflict your souls; in the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening.” And threatens that whoever “shall not be afflicted in that same day, he shall be cut off from his people.” and and command that you “shall do no manner of work.” Similarly, and call it a “Sabbath of solemn rest.” And in God threatens that whoever “does any manner of work in that same day, that soul will I destroy from among his people.” and and describe the purpose of the day to make atonement for the people. Similarly, speaks of the purpose “to cleanse you from all your sins,” and speaks of making atonement for the most holy place, the tent of meeting, the altar; and the priests. instructs that the commandment applies both to “the home-born” and to “the stranger who sojourns among you.” and and command offerings to God. And and institute the observance as “a statute forever.”
sets out detailed procedures for the priest’s atonement ritual during the time of the Temple
.
instructs that after seven Sabbatical years, on the Jubilee year
, on the day of atonement, the Israelites were to proclaim liberty throughout the land with the blast of the horn and return every man to his possession and to his family.
In Isaiah
the Haftarah
for Yom Kippur morning, God describes “the fast that I have chosen [on] the day for a man to afflict his soul.” make clear that “to afflict the soul” was understood as fasting. But goes on to impress that “to afflict the soul,” God also seeks acts of social justice: “to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke,” “to let the oppressed go free,” “to give your bread to the hungry, and . . . bring the poor that are cast out to your house,” and “when you see the naked, that you cover him.”
ites' pillars (מַצֵּבֹתֵיהֶם, matzeivoteihem). And Deuteronomy prohibits setting up a pillar (מַצֵּבָה, matzeivah), “which the Lord your God hates.” But before these commandments were issued, in Genesis Jacob
took the stone on which he had slept, set it up as a pillar (מַצֵּבָה, matzeivah), and poured oil on the top of it.
in the Mishnah
, Tosefta
, and Jerusalem Talmud
interpreted the laws of the Sabbatical year in and and 31:10–13. (Mishnah Sheviit 1:1–10:9; Tosefta Sheviit 1:1–8:11; Jerusalem Talmud Sheviit 1a–87b.)
Rabbi Isaac taught that the words of Psalm
“mighty in strength that fulfill His word,” speak of those who observe the Sabbatical year. Rabbi Isaac said that we often find that a person fulfills a precept for a day, a week, or a month, but it is remarkable to find one who does so for an entire year. Rabbi Isaac asked whether one could find a mightier person than one who sees his field untilled, see his vineyard untilled, and yet pays his taxes and does not complain. And Rabbi Isaac noted that uses the words “that fulfill His word (dabar),” and says regarding observance of the Sabbatical year, “And this is the manner (dabar) of the release,” and argued that “dabar” means the observance of the Sabbatical year in both places. (Leviticus Rabbah
1:1.)
The Mishnah employed the prohibition of to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of ) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of ), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of ), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of ) and (8) a Nazirite
(in violation of ) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai
said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of and ). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations. (Mishnah Makkot 3:9; Babylonian Talmud
Makkot 21b.)
The Gemara implied that the sin of Moses in striking the rock at Meribah
compared favorably to the sin of David
. The Gemara reported that Moses and David were two good leaders of Israel. Moses begged God that his sin be recorded, as it is in and and David, however, begged that his sin be blotted out, as says, “Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is pardoned.” The Gemara compared the cases of Moses and David to the cases of two women whom the court sentenced to be lashed. One had committed an indecent act, while the other had eaten unripe figs of the seventh year in violation of The woman who had eaten unripe figs begged the court to make known for what offense she was being flogged, lest people say that she was being punished for the same sin as the other woman. The court thus made known her sin, and the Torah repeatedly records the sin of Moses. (Babylonian Talmud Yoma 86b.)
The latter parts of tractate Arakhin
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the jubilee year in (Mishnah Arakhin 7:1–9:8; Tosefta Arakhin 5:1–19; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 24a–34a.)
The Mishnah taught that the jubilee year had the same ritual as Rosh Hashanah
for blowing the shofar and for blessings. But Rabbi Judah
said that on Rosh Hashanah, the blast was made with a ram’s horn shofar, while on jubilee the blast was made with an antelope’s (or some say a goat’s) horn shofar. (Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 3:5; Babylonian Talmud Rosh Hashanah 26b.)
The Mishnah taught that exile resulted from (among other things) transgressing the commandment (in and ) to observe a Sabbatical year for the land. (Mishnah Avot 5:9.) And pestilence resulted from (among other things) violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year. (Mishnah Avot 5:8.)
A midrash
interpreted the words “it shall be a jubilee unto you” in to teach that God gave the year of release and the jubilee to the Israelites alone, and not to other nations. And similarly, the midrash interpreted the words “To give you the land of Canaan” in to teach that God gave the Land of Israel
to the Israelites alone. (Exodus Rabbah
25:23.)
At a feast, Rabbi
served his disciples tender and tough cuts of beef tongue
. When his disciples chose the tender over the tough, Rabbi instructed them so to let their tongues be tender to one another. Rabbi taught that this was the meaning of when Moses admonished: “And if you sell anything . . . you shall not wrong one another.” (Leviticus Rabbah 33:1.) Similarly, a midrash concluded that these words of taught that anyone who wrongs a neighbor with words will be punished according to Scripture. (Leviticus Rabbah 33:5.)
In a Baraita
, the Rabbi
s interpreted the words “you shall not wrong one another” in to prohibit verbal wrongs, as had already addressed monetary wrongs. The Baraita cited as examples of verbal wrongs: (1) reminding penitents of their former deeds, (2) reminding converts’ children of their ancestors’ deeds, (3) questioning the propriety of converts’ coming to study Torah, (4) speaking to those visited by suffering as Job’s
companions spoke to him in and (5) directing donkey drivers seeking grain to a person whom one knows has never sold grain. The Gemara said that Scripture uses the words “and you shall fear your God” (as in ) concerning cases where intent matters, cases that are known only to the heart. Rabbi Johanan
said on the authority of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai that verbal wrongs are more heinous than monetary wrongs, because of verbal wrongs it is written (in ), “and you shall fear your God,” but not of monetary wrongs (in ). Rabbi Eleazar said that verbal wrongs affect the victim's person, while monetary wrongs affect only the victim's money. Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said that while restoration is possible in cases of monetary wrongs, it is not in cases of verbal wrongs. And a Tanna
taught before Rav Nahman bar Isaac that one who publicly makes a neighbor blanch from shame is as one who sheds blood. Whereupon Rav Nahman remarked how he had seen the blood rush from a person’s face upon such shaming. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 58b.)
Rabbi Phinehas in the name of Rabbi Reuben interpreted the words “If your brother grows poor . . . then shall his kinsman . . . redeem” in to exhort Israel to acts of charity. Rabbi Phinehas taught that God will reward with life anyone who gives a coin to a poor person, for the donor could be giving not just a coin, but life. Rabbi Phinehas explained that if a loaf costs ten coins, and a poor person has but nine, then the gift of a single coin allows the poor person to buy the loaf, eat, and become refreshed. Thus, Rabbi Phinehas taught, when illness strikes the donor, and the donor’s soul presses to leave the donor’s body, God will return the gift of life. (Leviticus Rabbah 34:2.) Similarly, Rav Nahman
taught that exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because fortune revolves like a wheel in the world, sometimes leaving one poor and sometimes well off. (Leviticus Rabbah 34:3.) And similarly, Rabbi Tanhum son of Rabbi Hiyya taught that exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because God made the poor as well as the rich, so that they might benefit each other; the rich one benefiting the poor one with charity, and the poor one benefiting the rich one by affording the rich one the opportunity to do good. Bearing this in mind, when Rabbi Tanhum’s mother went to buy him a pound of meat, she would buy him two pounds, one for him and one for the poor. (Leviticus Rabbah 34:5.)
The Gemara employed to deduce that the term yamim (literally “days”) sometimes means “a year,” and Rab Hisda
thus interpreted the word yamim in to mean “a year.” says, “And her brother and her mother said: ‘Let the maiden abide with us yamim, at the least ten.” The Gemara reasoned that if yamim in means “days” and thus to imply “two days” (as the plural implies more than one), then would report Rebekah’s brother and mother suggesting that she stay first two days, and then when Eliezer
said that that was too long, nonsensically suggesting ten days. The Gemara thus deduced that yamim must mean “a year” in as implies when it says, “if a man sells a house in a walled city, then he may redeem it within a whole year after it is sold; for a full year (yamim) shall he have the right of redemption.” Thus might mean, “Let the maiden abide with us a year, or at the least ten months.” The Gemara then suggested that yamim might mean “a month,” as suggests when it uses the phrase “a month of days (yamim).” The Gemara concluded, however, that yamim means “a month” only when the term “month” is specifically mentioned, but otherwise means either “days” (at least two) or “a year.” (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 57b.)
Rav Nahman bar Isaac
(explaining the position of Rabbi Eleazar) interpreted the words “that your brother may live with you” in to teach that one who has exacted interest should return it to the borrower, so that the borrower could survive economically. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 61b–62a.)
A Baraita considered the case where two people were traveling on a journey, and one had a container of water; if both drank, they would both die, but if only one drank, then that one might reach civilization and survive. Ben Patura taught that it is better that both should drink and die, rather than that only one should drink and see the other die. But Rabbi Akiba interpreted the words “that your brother may live with you” in to teach that concern for one’s own life takes precedence over concern for another’s. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 62a.)
Part of chapter 1 of Tractate Kiddushin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Hebrew servant in and and (Mishnah Kiddushin 1:2; Tosefta Kiddushin 1:5–6; Jerusalem Talmud Kiddushin ch. 1; Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 14b–22b.)
Abaye
said that because the law (in and elsewhere) required the master to treat a Hebrew slave well — and as an equal in food, drink, and sleeping accommodations — it was said that buying a Hebrew slave was like buying a master. (Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 20a.) The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the words of regarding the Hebrew servant, “he fares well with you,” indicate that the Hebrew servant had to be “with” — that is, equal to — the master in food and drink. Thus the master could not eat white bread and have the servant eat black bread. The master could not drink old wine and have the servant drink new wine. The master could not sleep on a feather bed and have the servant sleep on straw. Hence, they said that buying a Hebrew servant was like buying a master. Similarly, Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of “Then he shall go out from you, he and his children with him,” that the master was liable to provide for the servant’s children until the servant went out. And Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of “If he is married, then his wife shall go out with him,” that the master was responsible to provide for the servant’s wife, as well. (Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 22a.)
Rabbi Levi interpreted to teach that God claimed Israel as God’s own possession when God said, “To Me the children of Israel are servants.” (Exodus Rabbah 30:1; see also Exodus Rabbah 33:5.)
, there are 7 positive and 17 negative commandments
in the parshah:
(Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, 3:363–461. Jerusalem: Feldheim Pub., 1984. ISBN 0-87306-297-3.)
for the parshah is Jeremiah
32:6–27.
When parshah Behar is combined with parshah Behukotai, the haftarah is the haftarah for Behukotai,
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Hebrew language
Hebrew is a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Culturally, is it considered by Jews and other religious groups as the language of the Jewish people, though other Jewish languages had originated among diaspora Jews, and the Hebrew language is also used by non-Jewish groups, such...
for "on the mount,” the fifth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parshah) is the 32nd weekly Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
cycle of Torah reading
Torah reading
Torah reading is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with special cantillation, and returning the scroll to...
and the ninth in the book of Leviticus
Leviticus
The Book of Leviticus is the third book of the Hebrew Bible, and the third of five books of the Torah ....
. It constitutes Jews in the Diaspora
Jewish diaspora
The Jewish diaspora is the English term used to describe the Galut גלות , or 'exile', of the Jews from the region of the Kingdom of Judah and Roman Iudaea and later emigration from wider Eretz Israel....
generally read it in May.
The lunisolar
Lunisolar calendar
A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures whose date indicates both the moon phase and the time of the solar year. If the solar year is defined as a tropical year then a lunisolar calendar will give an indication of the season; if it is taken as a sidereal year then the calendar will...
Hebrew calendar
Hebrew calendar
The Hebrew calendar , or Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today predominantly for Jewish religious observances. It determines the dates for Jewish holidays and the appropriate public reading of Torah portions, yahrzeits , and daily Psalm reading, among many ceremonial uses...
contains up to 55 week
Week
A week is a time unit equal to seven days.The English word week continues an Old English wice, ultimately from a Common Germanic , from a root "turn, move, change"...
s, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2011, 2014, and 2016), parshah Behar is read separately. In common years (for example, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018), parshah Behar is combined with the next parshah, Bechukotai
Bechukotai
Bechukotai, Bechukosai, or B'hukkothai is the 33rd weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the 10th and last in the book of Leviticus...
, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
A Sabbatical year for the land
On Mount SinaiMount Sinai
Mount Sinai , also known as Mount Horeb, Mount Musa, Gabal Musa , Jabal Musa meaning "Moses' Mountain", is a mountain near Saint Catherine in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. A mountain called Mount Sinai is mentioned many times in the Book of Exodus in the Torah and the Bible as well as the Quran...
, God
Names of God in Judaism
In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title; it represents the Jewish conception of the divine nature, and of the relationship of God to the Jewish people and to the world. To demonstrate the sacredness of the names of God, and as a means of showing respect and reverence for...
told Moses
Moses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
to tell the Israelite
Israelite
According to the Bible the Israelites were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the monarchic period .The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew ישראל...
s the law of the Sabbatical year
Sabbatical year (Bible)
Shmita , also called the Sabbatical Year, is the seventh year of the seven-year agricultural cycle mandated by the Torah for the Land of Israel, and still observed in contemporary Judaism....
for the land. The people could work the fields for six years, but in the seventh year the land was to have a Sabbath of complete rest during which the people were not to sow their fields, prune their vineyards, or reap the aftergrowth. They could, however, eat whatever the land produced on its own.
The people were further to hallow the 50th year, the Jubilee
Jubilee (Biblical)
The Jubilee year is the year at the end of seven cycles of Sabbatical years , and according to Biblical regulations had a special impact on the ownership and management of land in the territory of the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah; there is some debate whether it was the 49th year The Jubilee...
year, and to proclaim release for all with a blast on the horn. Each Israelite was to return to his family and his ancestral land holding. In selling or buying property, the people were to charge only for the remaining number of crop years until the jubilee, when the land would be returned to its ancestral holder.
If one fell into straits and had to sell land, his nearest relative was to redeem what was sold. If one had no one to redeem, but prospered and acquired enough wealth, he could refund the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee, and return to his holding.
If one sold a house in a wall
Wall
A wall is a usually solid structure that defines and sometimes protects an area. Most commonly, a wall delineates a building and supports its superstructure, separates space in buildings into rooms, or protects or delineates a space in the open air...
ed city, one could redeem it for a year, and thereafter the house would pass to the purchaser beyond reclaim and not be released in the jubilee. But houses in villages without encircling walls were treated as open country subject to redemption and release through the jubilee. Levite
Levite
In Jewish tradition, a Levite is a member of the Hebrew tribe of Levi. When Joshua led the Israelites into the land of Canaan, the Levites were the only Israelite tribe that received cities but were not allowed to be landowners "because the Lord the God of Israel himself is their inheritance"...
s were to have a permanent right of redemption for houses and property in the cities of the Levites. The unenclosed land about their cities could not be sold.
Limits on debt servitude
If a kinsman fell into straits and came under one’s authority by virtue of his debtDebt
A debt is an obligation owed by one party to a second party, the creditor; usually this refers to assets granted by the creditor to the debtor, but the term can also be used metaphorically to cover moral obligations and other interactions not based on economic value.A debt is created when a...
s, one was to let him live by one’s side as a kinsman and not exact from him interest. Israelites were not to lend money to countrymen at interest. If the kinsman continued in straits and had to give himself over to a creditor for debt, the creditor was not to subject him to the treatment of a slave
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
, but to treat him as a hired or bound laborer until the jubilee year, at which time he was to be freed to go back to his family and ancestral holding. Israelites were not to rule over such debtor Israelites ruthlessly. Israelites could, however, buy and own as inheritable property slaves from other nations.
If an Israelite fell into straits and came under a resident alien’s authority by virtue of his debts, the Israelite debtor was to have the right of redemption. A relative was to redeem him or, if he prospered, he could redeem himself by paying the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee.
Yom Kippur
refers to the Festival of Yom KippurYom Kippur
Yom Kippur , also known as Day of Atonement, is the holiest and most solemn day of the year for the Jews. Its central themes are atonement and repentance. Jews traditionally observe this holy day with a 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue...
. In the Hebrew Bible
Tanakh
The Tanakh is a name used in Judaism for the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The Tanakh is also known as the Masoretic Text or the Miqra. The name is an acronym formed from the initial Hebrew letters of the Masoretic Text's three traditional subdivisions: The Torah , Nevi'im and Ketuvim —hence...
, Yom Kippur is called:
- the Day of Atonement (יוֹם הַכִּפֻּרִים, Yom HaKippurim) ( and ) or a Day of Atonement (יוֹם כִּפֻּרִים, Yom Kippurim) ;
- a Sabbath of solemn rest (שַׁבַּת שַׁבָּתוֹן, Shabbat Shabbaton) ( and ); and
- a holy convocation (מִקְרָא-קֹדֶשׁ, mikrah kodesh) ( and NumbersBook of NumbersThe Book of Numbers is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch....
).
Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of Tishrei
Tishrei
Tishrei or Tishri , Tiberian: ; from Akkadian "Beginning", from "To begin") is the first month of the civil year and the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year in the Hebrew calendar. The name of the month is Babylonian. It is an autumn month of 30 days...
, precedes the Festival of Sukkot, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, Exodus speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of Nisan
Nisan
Nisan is the first month of the ecclesiastical year and the seventh month of the civil year, on the Hebrew calendar. The name of the month is Babylonian; in the Torah it is called the month of the Aviv, referring to the month in which barley was ripe. It is a spring month of 30 days...
preparatory to the Festival of Passover, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.
and and present similar injunctions to observe Yom Kippur. and and set the Holy Day on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishrei). and and instruct that “you shall afflict your souls.” makes clear that a full day is intended: “you shall afflict your souls; in the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening.” And threatens that whoever “shall not be afflicted in that same day, he shall be cut off from his people.” and and command that you “shall do no manner of work.” Similarly, and call it a “Sabbath of solemn rest.” And in God threatens that whoever “does any manner of work in that same day, that soul will I destroy from among his people.” and and describe the purpose of the day to make atonement for the people. Similarly, speaks of the purpose “to cleanse you from all your sins,” and speaks of making atonement for the most holy place, the tent of meeting, the altar; and the priests. instructs that the commandment applies both to “the home-born” and to “the stranger who sojourns among you.” and and command offerings to God. And and institute the observance as “a statute forever.”
sets out detailed procedures for the priest’s atonement ritual during the time of the Temple
Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple , refers to one of a series of structures which were historically located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, these successive temples stood at this location and functioned as the centre of...
.
instructs that after seven Sabbatical years, on the Jubilee year
Jubilee (Biblical)
The Jubilee year is the year at the end of seven cycles of Sabbatical years , and according to Biblical regulations had a special impact on the ownership and management of land in the territory of the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah; there is some debate whether it was the 49th year The Jubilee...
, on the day of atonement, the Israelites were to proclaim liberty throughout the land with the blast of the horn and return every man to his possession and to his family.
In Isaiah
Book of Isaiah
The Book of Isaiah is the first of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, preceding the books of Ezekiel, Jeremiah and the Book of the Twelve...
the Haftarah
Haftarah
The haftarah or haftoroh is a series of selections from the books of Nevi'im of the Hebrew Bible that is publicly read in synagogue as part of Jewish religious practice...
for Yom Kippur morning, God describes “the fast that I have chosen [on] the day for a man to afflict his soul.” make clear that “to afflict the soul” was understood as fasting. But goes on to impress that “to afflict the soul,” God also seeks acts of social justice: “to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke,” “to let the oppressed go free,” “to give your bread to the hungry, and . . . bring the poor that are cast out to your house,” and “when you see the naked, that you cover him.”
Leviticus chapter 26
directs the Israelites not to rear up a pillar (מַצֵּבָה, matzeivah). directed the Israelites to break in pieces the CanaanCanaan
Canaan is a historical region roughly corresponding to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and the western parts of Jordan...
ites' pillars (מַצֵּבֹתֵיהֶם, matzeivoteihem). And Deuteronomy prohibits setting up a pillar (מַצֵּבָה, matzeivah), “which the Lord your God hates.” But before these commandments were issued, in Genesis Jacob
Jacob
Jacob "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel , as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.In the...
took the stone on which he had slept, set it up as a pillar (מַצֵּבָה, matzeivah), and poured oil on the top of it.
Leviticus 25:1–34 — a Sabbatical year for the land
Tractate SheviitShevi'it (Talmud)
Shevi'it is the fifth tractate of Seder Zeraim of the Mishnah and of the Talmud. It deals with all laws of allowing the land to rest in the seventh year, the laws of Shemittah produce and the remission of debts...
in the Mishnah
Mishnah
The Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
, Tosefta
Tosefta
The Tosefta is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah.-Overview:...
, and Jerusalem Talmud
Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud, talmud meaning "instruction", "learning", , is a collection of Rabbinic notes on the 2nd-century Mishnah which was compiled in the Land of Israel during the 4th-5th century. The voluminous text is also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud de-Eretz Yisrael...
interpreted the laws of the Sabbatical year in and and 31:10–13. (Mishnah Sheviit 1:1–10:9; Tosefta Sheviit 1:1–8:11; Jerusalem Talmud Sheviit 1a–87b.)
Rabbi Isaac taught that the words of Psalm
Psalms
The Book of Psalms , commonly referred to simply as Psalms, is a book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible...
“mighty in strength that fulfill His word,” speak of those who observe the Sabbatical year. Rabbi Isaac said that we often find that a person fulfills a precept for a day, a week, or a month, but it is remarkable to find one who does so for an entire year. Rabbi Isaac asked whether one could find a mightier person than one who sees his field untilled, see his vineyard untilled, and yet pays his taxes and does not complain. And Rabbi Isaac noted that uses the words “that fulfill His word (dabar),” and says regarding observance of the Sabbatical year, “And this is the manner (dabar) of the release,” and argued that “dabar” means the observance of the Sabbatical year in both places. (Leviticus Rabbah
Leviticus Rabbah
Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayiqra Rabbah is a homiletic midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus . It is referred to by Nathan ben Jehiel in his Aruk as well as by Rashi in his commentaries on , and elsewhere. According to Leopold Zunz, Hai Gaon and Nissim knew and made use of it...
1:1.)
The Mishnah employed the prohibition of to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of ) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of ), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of ), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of ) and (8) a Nazirite
Nazirite
In the Hebrew Bible, a nazirite or nazarite, , refers to one who voluntarily took a vow described in . The term "nazirite" comes from the Hebrew word nazir meaning "consecrated" or "separated"...
(in violation of ) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai
Hanina ben Hakinai
Hanina ben Hakinai or Hanania ben Hakinai was a Tanna of the 2nd century; contemporary of Ben 'Azzai and Simon the Temanite . Sometimes he is cited without his prænomen .- Life :Who his early teachers were is not certainly known...
said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of and ). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations. (Mishnah Makkot 3:9; Babylonian Talmud
Talmud
The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
Makkot 21b.)
The Gemara implied that the sin of Moses in striking the rock at Meribah
Meribah
Meribah is one of the locations which the Torah identifies as having been travelled through by the Israelites, during the Exodus, although the continuous list of visited stations in the Book of Numbers doesn't mention it...
compared favorably to the sin of David
David
David was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible and, according to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, an ancestor of Jesus Christ through both Saint Joseph and Mary...
. The Gemara reported that Moses and David were two good leaders of Israel. Moses begged God that his sin be recorded, as it is in and and David, however, begged that his sin be blotted out, as says, “Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is pardoned.” The Gemara compared the cases of Moses and David to the cases of two women whom the court sentenced to be lashed. One had committed an indecent act, while the other had eaten unripe figs of the seventh year in violation of The woman who had eaten unripe figs begged the court to make known for what offense she was being flogged, lest people say that she was being punished for the same sin as the other woman. The court thus made known her sin, and the Torah repeatedly records the sin of Moses. (Babylonian Talmud Yoma 86b.)
The latter parts of tractate Arakhin
Arakhin
Arakhin is the fifth tractate in Seder Kodashim .Only chapters 1–6 based on Leviticus 27:1–8, deals with the vows of donating one's prescribed value as part of the dedication to the Temple, as well as other gifts to bedek habayis, or the treasury of the Temple...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the jubilee year in (Mishnah Arakhin 7:1–9:8; Tosefta Arakhin 5:1–19; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 24a–34a.)
The Mishnah taught that the jubilee year had the same ritual as Rosh Hashanah
Rosh Hashanah
Rosh Hashanah , , is the Jewish New Year. It is the first of the High Holy Days or Yamim Nora'im which occur in the autumn...
for blowing the shofar and for blessings. But Rabbi Judah
Judah ben Ilai
Judah bar Ilai, also known as Judah ben Ilai, Rabbi Judah or Judah the Palestinian , was a tanna of the 2nd Century and son of Rabbi Ilai I. Of the many Judahs in the Talmud, he is the one referred to simply as "Rabbi Judah" and is the most frequently mentioned sage in the Mishnah.Judah bar Ilai...
said that on Rosh Hashanah, the blast was made with a ram’s horn shofar, while on jubilee the blast was made with an antelope’s (or some say a goat’s) horn shofar. (Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 3:5; Babylonian Talmud Rosh Hashanah 26b.)
The Mishnah taught that exile resulted from (among other things) transgressing the commandment (in and ) to observe a Sabbatical year for the land. (Mishnah Avot 5:9.) And pestilence resulted from (among other things) violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year. (Mishnah Avot 5:8.)
A midrash
Midrash
The Hebrew term Midrash is a homiletic method of biblical exegesis. The term also refers to the whole compilation of homiletic teachings on the Bible....
interpreted the words “it shall be a jubilee unto you” in to teach that God gave the year of release and the jubilee to the Israelites alone, and not to other nations. And similarly, the midrash interpreted the words “To give you the land of Canaan” in to teach that God gave the Land of Israel
Land of Israel
The Land of Israel is the Biblical name for the territory roughly corresponding to the area encompassed by the Southern Levant, also known as Canaan and Palestine, Promised Land and Holy Land. The belief that the area is a God-given homeland of the Jewish people is based on the narrative of the...
to the Israelites alone. (Exodus Rabbah
Exodus Rabbah
Exodus Rabbah is the midrash to Exodus, containing in the printed editions 52 parashiyyot. It is not uniform in its composition.- Structure :In parashiyyot i.-xiv...
25:23.)
At a feast, Rabbi
Judah haNasi
Judah the Prince, or Judah I, also known as Rebbi or Rabbeinu HaKadosh , was a 2nd-century CE rabbi and chief redactor and editor of the Mishnah. He was a key leader of the Jewish community during the Roman occupation of Judea . He was of the Davidic line, the royal line of King David, hence the...
served his disciples tender and tough cuts of beef tongue
Beef tongue
Beef tongue is the tongue of a cow. The human consumption of beef tongue dates back to the days of Paleolithic hunters, who preferred the fatty portions of the carcass including tongues, as well as organs, brains, feet, and marrow. Beef tongue is very high in fat, at almost 75% of its calories...
. When his disciples chose the tender over the tough, Rabbi instructed them so to let their tongues be tender to one another. Rabbi taught that this was the meaning of when Moses admonished: “And if you sell anything . . . you shall not wrong one another.” (Leviticus Rabbah 33:1.) Similarly, a midrash concluded that these words of taught that anyone who wrongs a neighbor with words will be punished according to Scripture. (Leviticus Rabbah 33:5.)
In a Baraita
Baraita
Baraita designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. "Baraita" thus refers to teachings "outside" of the six orders of the Mishnah...
, the Rabbi
Rabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
s interpreted the words “you shall not wrong one another” in to prohibit verbal wrongs, as had already addressed monetary wrongs. The Baraita cited as examples of verbal wrongs: (1) reminding penitents of their former deeds, (2) reminding converts’ children of their ancestors’ deeds, (3) questioning the propriety of converts’ coming to study Torah, (4) speaking to those visited by suffering as Job’s
Job (Biblical figure)
Job is the central character of the Book of Job in the Hebrew Bible. Job is listed as a prophet of God in the Qur'an.- Book of Job :The Book of Job begins with an introduction to Job's character — he is described as a blessed man who lives righteously...
companions spoke to him in and (5) directing donkey drivers seeking grain to a person whom one knows has never sold grain. The Gemara said that Scripture uses the words “and you shall fear your God” (as in ) concerning cases where intent matters, cases that are known only to the heart. Rabbi Johanan
Yochanan bar Nafcha
Rabbi Yochanan ;...
said on the authority of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai that verbal wrongs are more heinous than monetary wrongs, because of verbal wrongs it is written (in ), “and you shall fear your God,” but not of monetary wrongs (in ). Rabbi Eleazar said that verbal wrongs affect the victim's person, while monetary wrongs affect only the victim's money. Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said that while restoration is possible in cases of monetary wrongs, it is not in cases of verbal wrongs. And a Tanna
Tannaim
The Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 70-200 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also referred to as the Mishnaic period, lasted about 130 years...
taught before Rav Nahman bar Isaac that one who publicly makes a neighbor blanch from shame is as one who sheds blood. Whereupon Rav Nahman remarked how he had seen the blood rush from a person’s face upon such shaming. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 58b.)
Rabbi Phinehas in the name of Rabbi Reuben interpreted the words “If your brother grows poor . . . then shall his kinsman . . . redeem” in to exhort Israel to acts of charity. Rabbi Phinehas taught that God will reward with life anyone who gives a coin to a poor person, for the donor could be giving not just a coin, but life. Rabbi Phinehas explained that if a loaf costs ten coins, and a poor person has but nine, then the gift of a single coin allows the poor person to buy the loaf, eat, and become refreshed. Thus, Rabbi Phinehas taught, when illness strikes the donor, and the donor’s soul presses to leave the donor’s body, God will return the gift of life. (Leviticus Rabbah 34:2.) Similarly, Rav Nahman
Rav Nachman
Rav Nachman bar Yaakov was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an Amora of the third generation, and pupil of Samuel of Nehardea. He was chief justice of the Jews who were subject to the exilarch , and was also head of the school of Nehardea...
taught that exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because fortune revolves like a wheel in the world, sometimes leaving one poor and sometimes well off. (Leviticus Rabbah 34:3.) And similarly, Rabbi Tanhum son of Rabbi Hiyya taught that exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because God made the poor as well as the rich, so that they might benefit each other; the rich one benefiting the poor one with charity, and the poor one benefiting the rich one by affording the rich one the opportunity to do good. Bearing this in mind, when Rabbi Tanhum’s mother went to buy him a pound of meat, she would buy him two pounds, one for him and one for the poor. (Leviticus Rabbah 34:5.)
The Gemara employed to deduce that the term yamim (literally “days”) sometimes means “a year,” and Rab Hisda
Rav Chisda
Rav Chisda was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, known as an amora of the third generation , mentioned frequently in the Talmud.-Youth:...
thus interpreted the word yamim in to mean “a year.” says, “And her brother and her mother said: ‘Let the maiden abide with us yamim, at the least ten.” The Gemara reasoned that if yamim in means “days” and thus to imply “two days” (as the plural implies more than one), then would report Rebekah’s brother and mother suggesting that she stay first two days, and then when Eliezer
Eliezer
For the mathematician and Tamil activist see C.J. Eliezer; for the AI researcher and writer on rationality see Eliezer Yudkowsky; for the Levite priest of the Hebrew Bible, see Eleazar...
said that that was too long, nonsensically suggesting ten days. The Gemara thus deduced that yamim must mean “a year” in as implies when it says, “if a man sells a house in a walled city, then he may redeem it within a whole year after it is sold; for a full year (yamim) shall he have the right of redemption.” Thus might mean, “Let the maiden abide with us a year, or at the least ten months.” The Gemara then suggested that yamim might mean “a month,” as suggests when it uses the phrase “a month of days (yamim).” The Gemara concluded, however, that yamim means “a month” only when the term “month” is specifically mentioned, but otherwise means either “days” (at least two) or “a year.” (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 57b.)
Leviticus 25:35–55 — limits on debt servitude
In the words, “Take no interest or increase, but fear your God,” in “interest” (neshech) literally means “bite.” A midrash played on this meaning, teaching not to take interest from the poor person, not to bite the poor person as the serpent — cunning to do evil — bit Adam. The midrash taught that one who exacts interest from an Israelite thus has no fear of God. (Exodus Rabbah 31:13.)Rav Nahman bar Isaac
Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak
Rav Nachman bar Yitzchak or Rabh Naħman bar Yişħaq in actual Talmudic and Classical Hebrew was an amora who lived in Babylonia. He was a disciple of Abaye and Rava and the dean of the yeshiva at Pumbedita....
(explaining the position of Rabbi Eleazar) interpreted the words “that your brother may live with you” in to teach that one who has exacted interest should return it to the borrower, so that the borrower could survive economically. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 61b–62a.)
A Baraita considered the case where two people were traveling on a journey, and one had a container of water; if both drank, they would both die, but if only one drank, then that one might reach civilization and survive. Ben Patura taught that it is better that both should drink and die, rather than that only one should drink and see the other die. But Rabbi Akiba interpreted the words “that your brother may live with you” in to teach that concern for one’s own life takes precedence over concern for another’s. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 62a.)
Part of chapter 1 of Tractate Kiddushin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Hebrew servant in and and (Mishnah Kiddushin 1:2; Tosefta Kiddushin 1:5–6; Jerusalem Talmud Kiddushin ch. 1; Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 14b–22b.)
Abaye
Abaye
Abaye was a rabbi of the Jewish Talmud who lived in Babylonia [בבל], known as an amora [אמורא] born about the close of the third century; died 339 . His father, Kaylil, was the brother of Rabbah bar Nachmani, a teacher at the Academy of Pumbedita. Abaye's real name was Nachmani, after his...
said that because the law (in and elsewhere) required the master to treat a Hebrew slave well — and as an equal in food, drink, and sleeping accommodations — it was said that buying a Hebrew slave was like buying a master. (Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 20a.) The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the words of regarding the Hebrew servant, “he fares well with you,” indicate that the Hebrew servant had to be “with” — that is, equal to — the master in food and drink. Thus the master could not eat white bread and have the servant eat black bread. The master could not drink old wine and have the servant drink new wine. The master could not sleep on a feather bed and have the servant sleep on straw. Hence, they said that buying a Hebrew servant was like buying a master. Similarly, Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of “Then he shall go out from you, he and his children with him,” that the master was liable to provide for the servant’s children until the servant went out. And Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of “If he is married, then his wife shall go out with him,” that the master was responsible to provide for the servant’s wife, as well. (Babylonian Talmud Kiddushin 22a.)
Rabbi Levi interpreted to teach that God claimed Israel as God’s own possession when God said, “To Me the children of Israel are servants.” (Exodus Rabbah 30:1; see also Exodus Rabbah 33:5.)
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-ChinuchSefer ha-Chinuch
The Sefer ha-Chinuch , often simply "the Chinuch" is a work which systematically discusses the 613 commandments of the Torah. It was published anonymously in 13th century Spain...
, there are 7 positive and 17 negative commandments
Mitzvah
The primary meaning of the Hebrew word refers to precepts and commandments as commanded by God...
in the parshah:
- Not to work the land during the seventh year
- Not to work with treeTreeA tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
s to produce fruitFruitIn broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
during that year - Not to reap crops that grow wild that year in the normal manner
- Not to gather grapeGrapeA grape is a non-climacteric fruit, specifically a berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or they can be used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, molasses and grape seed oil. Grapes are also...
s which grow wild that year in the normal way - The SanhedrinSanhedrinThe Sanhedrin was an assembly of twenty-three judges appointed in every city in the Biblical Land of Israel.The Great Sanhedrin was the supreme court of ancient Israel made of 71 members...
must count seven groups of seven years. - To blow the shofarShofarA shofar is a horn, traditionally that of a ram, used for Jewish religious purposes. Shofar-blowing is incorporated in synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.Shofar come in a variety of sizes.- Bible and rabbinic literature :...
on the tenth of TishreiTishreiTishrei or Tishri , Tiberian: ; from Akkadian "Beginning", from "To begin") is the first month of the civil year and the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year in the Hebrew calendar. The name of the month is Babylonian. It is an autumn month of 30 days...
to free the slaves - The Sanhedrin must sanctify the 50th year.
- Not to work the soilSoilSoil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
during the 50th year - Not to reap in the normal manner that which grows wild in the fiftieth year
- Not to pick grapes which grew wild in the normal manner in the fiftieth year
- To buy and sell according to TorahTorahTorah- A scroll containing the first five books of the BibleThe Torah , is name given by Jews to the first five books of the bible—Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy Torah- A scroll containing the first five books of the BibleThe Torah , is name given by Jews to the first five...
law - Not to overcharge or underpay for an article
- Not to insult or harm anybody with wordWordIn language, a word is the smallest free form that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content . This contrasts with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own...
s - Not to sell the land in IsraelIsraelThe State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
indefinitely - To carry out the laws of sold family properties
- To carry out the laws of houses in walled cities
- Not to sell the fields but they shall remain the Levites' before and after the Jubilee year
- Not to lend with interest
- Not to have a Hebrew servant do menial slave labor
- Not to sell a Hebrew servant as a slave is sold
- Not to work a Hebrew servant oppressively
- CanaanCanaanCanaan is a historical region roughly corresponding to modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and the western parts of Jordan...
ite slaves must be kept forever - Not to allow a non-Jew to work a Hebrew servant oppressively
- Not to bow down on smooth stone
Haftarah
The haftarahHaftarah
The haftarah or haftoroh is a series of selections from the books of Nevi'im of the Hebrew Bible that is publicly read in synagogue as part of Jewish religious practice...
for the parshah is Jeremiah
Book of Jeremiah
The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve....
32:6–27.
When parshah Behar is combined with parshah Behukotai, the haftarah is the haftarah for Behukotai,
Ancient
- Code of HammurabiCode of HammurabiThe Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code, dating to ca. 1780 BC . It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a human-sized stone stele and various clay...
§ 117. Babylonia, Circa 1780 BCE. Reprinted in e.g. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old TestamentAncient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old TestamentAncient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament edited by James B. Pritchard is an anthology of important historical, legal, mythological, liturgical, and secular texts from the ancient Near East. William W...
. Edited by James B. PritchardJames B. PritchardJames Bennett Pritchard was an American archeologist whose work explicated the interrelationships of the religions of ancient Israel, Canaan, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon...
, 163, 170–71. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. ISBN 0691035032. (3-year limit on debt servitude for wife or child). - Julius Lewy. “The Biblical Institution of deror in the Light of Akkadian Documents.” Eretz-Israel 5 (1958): 21–31.
Biblical
(slavery); (Sabbatical year) (Sabbatical year). (Sabbatical year); (Sabbatical year); (Sabbatical year).- 2 KingsBooks of KingsThe Book of Kings presents a narrative history of ancient Israel and Judah from the death of David to the release of his successor Jehoiachin from imprisonment in Babylon, a period of some 400 years...
4:1–7 (slavery). (proclaim release). - JeremiahBook of JeremiahThe Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve....
32:6–15 (next of kin redeemer); 34:6–27 (releasing Hebrew slaves). - EzekielBook of EzekielThe Book of Ezekiel is the third of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the books of Isaiah and Jeremiah and preceding the Book of the Twelve....
7:12-13, 19 (economic equalization); 46:17 (year of release). - AmosBook of AmosThe Book of Amos is a prophetic book of the Hebrew Bible, one of the Twelve Minor Prophets. Amos, an older contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah, was active c. 750 BCE during the reign of Jeroboam II, making the Book of Amos the first biblical prophetic book written. Amos lived in the kingdom of Judah...
2:6 (slavery). (dwell in safety); (lending); (lending); (sojourner on earth). - NehemiahBook of NehemiahThe Book of Nehemiah is a book of the Hebrew Bible. Told largely in the form of a first-person memoir, it concerns the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah, a Jew who is a high official at the Persian court, and the dedication of the city and its people to God's laws...
5:1–13 (slavery). - 2 ChroniclesBooks of ChroniclesThe Books of Chronicles are part of the Hebrew Bible. In the Masoretic Text, it appears as the first or last book of the Ketuvim . Chronicles largely parallels the Davidic narratives in the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings...
36:20–21 (Sabbatical year).
Early nonrabbinic
- JubileesJubileesThe Book of Jubilees , sometimes called Lesser Genesis , is an ancient Jewish religious work, considered one of the pseudepigrapha by Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Churches...
chs. 1–50 Land of Israel, 2nd Century BCE.
Classical rabbinic
- MishnahMishnahThe Mishnah or Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted c...
: Sheviit 1:1–10:9; Rosh Hashanah 3:5; Ketubot 9:9; Nedarim 9:4; Kiddushin 1:2–3; Bava Metzia 5:1–11; Sanhedrin 3:4; Makkot 3:9; Avot 5:8–9; Bekhorot 9:10; Arakhin 7:1–9:8. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob NeusnerJacob NeusnerJacob Neusner is an American academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, New York.-Biography:Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Neusner was educated at Harvard University, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America , the University of Oxford, and Columbia University.Neusner is often celebrated...
, 68–93, 304, 424, 487, 544, 588, 618, 687, 807, 821–24. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4. - SifraSifraSifra is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah, as appears from Tanḥuma, quoted in Or Zarua, i. 7b. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim" , and in two passages also "Sifra debe...
245:1–259:2. Land of Israel, 4th Century CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 3:291–344. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. ISBN 1-55540-207-0. - Jerusalem TalmudJerusalem TalmudThe Jerusalem Talmud, talmud meaning "instruction", "learning", , is a collection of Rabbinic notes on the 2nd-century Mishnah which was compiled in the Land of Israel during the 4th-5th century. The voluminous text is also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud de-Eretz Yisrael...
: Peah 67a; Demai 24a, 48b; Sheviit 1a–87b; Maasrot 31b, 42b; Orlah 8a. Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, vols. 3–4, 6a–b, 9, 12. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2009. - Mekhilta According to Rabbi IshmaelMekhiltaThis article refers to the Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael. There is a separate article on the Mekhilta de-Rabbi ShimonMekhilta or Mekilta is a halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus...
1:2. Land of Israel, late 4th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Mekhilta According to Rabbi Ishmael. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 1:6. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. ISBN 1-55540-237-2. - Leviticus RabbahLeviticus RabbahLeviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayiqra Rabbah is a homiletic midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus . It is referred to by Nathan ben Jehiel in his Aruk as well as by Rashi in his commentaries on , and elsewhere. According to Leopold Zunz, Hai Gaon and Nissim knew and made use of it...
1:1; 2:2; 7:6; 29:11; 33:1–34:16. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon, 4:2, 21, 98, 378, 418–45. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
- Babylonian TalmudTalmudThe Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism. It takes the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history....
: Berakhot 12b, 36b, 47b; Shabbat 33a, 96b, 131b; Pesachim 51b, 52b; Yoma 65b; Sukkah 3a, 39a, 40a–b; Beitzah 34b, 37b; Rosh Hashanah 2a, 6b, 8b–9b, 13a, 24a, 26a, 27b, 30a, 33b–34a; Taanit 6b, 19b; Megillah 3b, 5b, 10b, 22b, 23b; Moed Katan 2a–4a, 13a; Chagigah 3b; Yevamot 46a, 47a, 78b, 83a; Ketubot 43a–b, 57b, 84a, 110b; Nedarim 42a, 58b, 61a; Nazir 5a, 61b; Sotah 3b; Gittin 25a, 36a–39a, 44b, 47a, 48b, 65a, 74b; Kiddushin 2b, 8a, 9a, 14b–17b, 20a–22b, 26a, 33b, 38b, 40b, 53a, 58a, 67b; Bava Kamma 28a, 62b, 69a–b, 82b, 87a, 101a–02a, 103a, 112a, 113a–b, 116b, 117b; Bava Metzia 10a, 12a, 30b, 47b, 51a, 56b, 57b, 58b, 59b, 60b–61b, 65a, 71a, 73b, 75b, 79a, 82a, 88b, 106a, 109a, 114a; Bava Batra 10a, 80b, 91b, 102b, 110b, 112a, 137a, 139a; Sanhedrin 10b, 12a, 15a, 24b, 26a, 39a, 65b, 86a, 101b, 106b; Makkot 3b, 8a–b, 11b–12a, 13a, 21b; Shevuot 4b, 16a, 45a; Avodah Zarah 9b, 20a, 50b, 54b, 62a; Menachot 84a; Chullin 6a, 114b, 120b; Bekhorot 12b–13b, 51a, 52b; Arakhin 14b, 15b, 18b, 24a–34a; Temurah 6b, 27a; Niddah 8b, 47a–48a, 51b. Babylonia, 6th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 vols. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. - TanhumaTanhumaMidrash Tanhuma is the name given to three different collections of Pentateuch haggadot; two are extant, while the third is known only through citations. These midrashim, although bearing the name of R. Tanḥuma, must not be regarded as having been written or edited by him...
Behar. 6th–7th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma: Vayikra. Translated and annotated by Avraham Davis; edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, 5:502–30. Monsey, N.Y.: Eastern Book Press, 2006.
Medieval
- RashiRashiShlomo Yitzhaki , or in Latin Salomon Isaacides, and today generally known by the acronym Rashi , was a medieval French rabbi famed as the author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud, as well as a comprehensive commentary on the Tanakh...
. Commentary. Leviticus 25–26. TroyesTroyesTroyes is a commune and the capital of the Aube department in north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about southeast of Paris. Many half-timbered houses survive in the old town...
, France, late 11th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi’s Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, 3:317–46. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-89906-028-5. - Judah HaleviYehuda HaleviJudah Halevi was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, either in Toledo or Tudela, in 1075 or 1086, and died shortly after arriving in Palestine in 1141...
. KuzariKuzariThe Kitab al Khazari, commonly called the Kuzari, is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi, completed around 1140. Its title is an Arabic phrase meaning Book of the Khazars...
. 2:18. ToledoToledo, SpainToledo's Alcázar became renowned in the 19th and 20th centuries as a military academy. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 its garrison was famously besieged by Republican forces.-Economy:...
, Spain, 1130–1140. Reprinted in, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Intro. by Henry Slonimsky, 93. New York: Schocken, 1964. ISBN 0-8052-0075-4. - ZoharZoharThe Zohar is the foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah and scriptural interpretations as well as material on Mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology...
3:107b–111a. Spain, late 13th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Modern
- Thomas HobbesThomas HobbesThomas Hobbes of Malmesbury , in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy...
. LeviathanLeviathan (book)Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil — commonly called simply Leviathan — is a book written by Thomas Hobbes and published in 1651. Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan...
, 3:40; Review & Conclusion. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. MacphersonC. B. MacphersonCrawford Brough Macpherson O.C. M.Sc. D. Sc. was an influential Canadian political scientist who taught political theory at the University of Toronto.-Life:...
, 503–04, 723. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0140431950. - Thomas MannThomas MannThomas Mann was a German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist, and 1929 Nobel Prize laureate, known for his series of highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novellas, noted for their insight into the psychology of the artist and the intellectual...
. Joseph and His BrothersJoseph and His BrothersJoseph and His Brothers is a four-part novel by Thomas Mann, written over the course of 16 years. Mann retells the familiar stories of Genesis, from Jacob to Joseph , setting it in the historical context of the Amarna Period...
. Translated by John E. WoodsJohn E. WoodsJohn E. Woods is a translator who specializes in translating German literature, since about 1978. His work includes much of the fictional prose of Arno Schmidt and the works of contemporary authors such as Ingo Schulze and Christoph Ransmayr...
, 356. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-4001-9. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943. (sacred stone). - I. Mendelsohn. “Slavery in the Ancient Near East.” Biblical ArchaeologistNear Eastern Archaeology MagazineNear Eastern Archaeology is an American magazine dedicated to the publication of art, archaeology, history, anthropology, literature, philology, and epigraphy of the Near Eastern and Mediterranean worlds from the Palaeolithic through Ottoman periods. The magazine is written for a general audience...
. 9 (1946): 74–88. - Ben Zion Bergman. “A Question of Great Interest: May a Synagogue Issue Interest-Bearing Bonds?” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1988. YD 167:1.1988a. Reprinted in Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, 319–23. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. ISBN 0-916219-27-5.
- Avram Israel Reisner. “Dissent: A Matter of Great Interest” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1988. YD 167:1.1988b. Reprinted in Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, 324–28. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. ISBN 0-916219-27-5.
- Elliot N. DorffElliot N. DorffElliot N. Dorff is a Conservative rabbi. He is a professor of Jewish theology at the American Jewish University in California , author and a bio-ethicist....
. “A Jewish Approach to End-Stage Medical Care.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1990. YD 339:1.1990b. Reprinted in Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, 519, 531–32, 564. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. ISBN 0-916219-27-5. (implications of God’s ownership of the universe on the duty to maintain life and health). - Jacob MilgromJacob MilgromJacob Milgrom was a prominent American Jewish Bible scholar and Conservative rabbi, best known for his comprehensive Torah commentaries and work on the Dead Sea Scrolls.-Biography:...
. “Sweet Land and Liberty: Whether real or utopian, the laws in Leviticus seem to be a more sensitive safeguard against pauperization than we, here and now, have devised.” Bible ReviewBible ReviewBible Review was a publication that sought to connect the academic study of the Bible to a broad general audience. Covering both the Old and New Testaments, Bible Review presented critical and historical interpretations of biblical texts, and “reader-friendly Biblical scholarship” from 1985 to...
. 9 (4) (Aug. 1993). - Elliot N. Dorff. “Family Violence.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1995. HM 424.1995. Reprinted in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, 773, 792. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4. (verbal abuse).
- Elliot N. Dorff. “Assisted Suicide.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1997. YD 345.1997a. Reprinted in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, 379, 380. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4. (implications for assisted suicide of God’s ownership of the universe).
- Jacob Milgrom. “Jubilee: A Rallying Cry for Today’s Oppressed: The laws of the Jubilee year offer a blueprint for bridging the gap between the have and have-not nations.” Bible Review. 13 (2) (Apr. 1997).
- Mary DouglasMary DouglasDame Mary Douglas, DBE, FBA was a British anthropologist, known for her writings on human culture and symbolism....
. Leviticus as Literature, 219–20, 242–44. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-924419-7. - Michael HudsonMichael Hudson (economist)Michael Hudson is research professor of economics at University of Missouri, Kansas City and a research associate at the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College...
. “Proclaim Liberty Throughout the Land: The economic roots of the Jubilee.” Bible Review. 15 (1) (Feb. 1999). - Joel RothJoel RothJoel Roth is a prominent American rabbi in the Rabbinical Assembly, which is the rabbinical body of Conservative Judaism. He is a former member and chair of the assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards which deals with questions of Jewish law and tradition, and serves as the Louis...
. “Organ Donation.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1999. YD 336.1999-. Reprinted in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, 194, 258–59. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4. (implications for organ donation of one’s duty to assist another). - Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 23–27, 3B:2145–271. New York: Anchor BibleAnchor Bible SeriesThe Anchor Bible project, consisting of a Commentary Series, Bible Dictionary, and Reference Library, is a scholarly and commercial co-venture begun in 1956, when individual volumes in the commentary series began production...
, 2000. ISBN 0-385-50035-1. - James Rosen. “Mental Retardation, Group Homes and the Rabbi.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2000. YD 336:1.2000. Reprinted in Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, 337–46. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. ISBN 0-916219-19-4.
- Joseph TelushkinJoseph TelushkinJoseph Telushkin is an American rabbi, lecturer, and author.-Biography:Telushkin attended the Yeshiva of Flatbush, was ordained at Yeshiva University, and studied Jewish history at Columbia University....
. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, 290–91. New York: Bell Tower, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4509-6. - Nathaniel PhilbrickNathaniel PhilbrickNathaniel Philbrick is an American author and a winner of the National Book Award for his 2000 work of maritime history In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex. He is member of the Philbrick literary family.-Life:...
. Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War, 309. New York: Viking Penguin, 2006. ISBN 0-670-03760-5. (Jubilee.) - Suzanne A. Brody. “Lost Jubilee.” In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, 92. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. ISBN 1-60047-112-9.
- Alicia Jo Rabins. “Snow/Scorpions and Spiders.” In Girls in Trouble. New York: JDub Music, 2009. (Miriam’s perspective on her banishment).
- Jerry Z. Muller. “The Long Shadow of Usury.” In Capitalism and the Jews, 15–71. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-691-14478-8.
- Eric NelsonEric M. NelsonEric Nelson is an American historian and Professor of Government at Harvard University.He received his A.B. from Harvard University and his PhD from The University of Cambridge ....
. The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought, 66–87. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-674-05058-7. - Joseph TelushkinJoseph TelushkinJoseph Telushkin is an American rabbi, lecturer, and author.-Biography:Telushkin attended the Yeshiva of Flatbush, was ordained at Yeshiva University, and studied Jewish history at Columbia University....
. Hillel: If Not Now, When? 52–54. New York: Nextbook, Schocken, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8052-4281-2. (sale of a house in a walled city). - U.S. Department of StateUnited States Department of StateThe United States Department of State , is the United States federal executive department responsible for international relations of the United States, equivalent to the foreign ministries of other countries...
. Trafficking in Persons Report: June 2010. (slavery in the present day).
Texts
Commentaries
- Academy for Jewish Religion, California
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- Shiur.com
- 613.org Jewish Torah Audio
- Tanach Study Center
- Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill
- Torah from Dixie
- Torah.org
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- Union for Reform Judaism
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- What’s Bothering Rashi?
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