Bracken
Encyclopedia
Bracken are several species of large, coarse fern
s of the genus Pteridium. Ferns (Pteridophyta) are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells
(eggs and sperm). Brackens are in the family Dennstaedtiaceae
, which are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are commonly found on moorland
. Brackens are cosmopolitan
, being found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts. The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern genus in the world.
In the past, the genus was commonly treated as having only one species, Pteridium aquilinum, but the recent trend is to subdivide it into about ten species.
As ferns, brackens do not have seeds or fruits, but the immature fronds, known as fiddleheads, are edible.
The word bracken is of Old Norse
origin, related to the Swedish word bräken, meaning fern.
, and, as it requires well-drained soil
, is generally found growing on the sides of hills.
It is an herbaceous
perennial plant
, deciduous in winter. The frond
s are produced singly from an underground rhizome
, and grow to be 1–3 m tall; the main stem is up to 1 cm diameter at the base. The rhizomes typically grow to a depth of 50 cm, although in some soils this may extend to more than a metre.
The spores used in reproduction are produced on the underside of the leaf in structures found on the edges of the leaf called sori
. The linear pattern of these is different from other ferns which are circular and towards the centre.
, occurring in temperate and subtropical regions throughout much of the world, including most of Europe
, Asia
, and North America
in the Northern Hemisphere
, and Australia
, New Zealand
and northern South America
in the Southern Hemisphere
. It is a prolific and abundant plant in the highlands of Great Britain
. It is limited to altitudes of below 600 metres in the UK, does not like extreme cold temperatures, poorly drained Marshes or Fen
. It causes such a problem of invading pastureland that at one time the British
government had an eradication programme. Special filters have even been used on some British water supplies to filter out the bracken spore
s. NBN distribution map for the United Kingdom
It has been observered growing in soils from pH 2.8 to 8.6. Exposure to cold or high pH
inhibits its growth.
grow primarily from dead bracken stems.
: Bracken fern is known to produce and release allelopathic chemicals, which is an important factor in its ability to dominate other vegetation, particularly in regrowth after fire. Herb and tree seedling growth may be inhibited even after bracken fern is removed, apparently because active plant toxins remain in the soil.
Brackens substitute the characteristics of a woodland canopy
, and are important for giving shade to European plants such as common bluebell
and wood anemone
, where the woodland does not exist. These plants are intolerant to stock trampling. Dead bracken provides a warm microclimate for development of the immature stages. Climbing corydalis, wild gladiolus
and chickweed wintergreen also seem to benefit from the conditions found under bracken stands.
The high humidity helps mosses survive underneath including Campylopus flexuosus, Hypnum cupressiforme
, Polytrichum commune
, Pseudoscelopodium purum and Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus.
e of some Lepidoptera
species including Dark Green Fritillary
, Dot Moth
, High Brown Fritillary
, Gold Swift
, Map-winged Swift
, Pearl-bordered Fritillary
, Orange Swift
, Small Angle Shades
, Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
. They also form an important ecological partnership with plants such as violet and cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense
) for various Boloria
Fritillary species.
It is also a favoured haunt of the sheep tick Ixodes ricinus
which can carry Lyme Disease
.
Between 27 to 40 invertebrates (including nine moths) in the UK feed on bracken. These include the sawfly
, a planthopper
(Dytroptis pteridis), the map-winged swift
moth caterpillar, brown silver-line moth caterpillar (Petrophora chlorosata
) and Paltodora
cytisella. The numbers feeding on the bracken increase as the season progresses due to the decreasing levels of toxin, and the production of nectaries in the spring, food for ants which in turn may kill any herbivorous insects in the vicinity.
Some birds such as the whinchat
and the nightjar
use bracken as their preferred habitats. The nightjar may lay its eggs on the bare ground under the bracken. The skylark
often nests in bracken and uses it for cover. Other birds known to nest in or beneath bracken include the willow warbler
(it will also use bracken to construct its nest), the tree pipit
, the yellowhammer
, the ring ouzel
, the woodcock
and the twite
.
The European adder
can be found basking on bracken, the colour of their skin concealing them.
Bracken fiddlehead
s (the immature, tightly curled emerging fronds) have been considered edible by many cultures throughout history, and are still commonly used today as a foodstuff. Bracken fiddleheads are either consumed fresh (and cooked) or preserved by salting, pickling, or sun drying. In Korea, where they are called gosari (고사리), they are a typical ingredient in the mixed rice dish called bibimbap
.
Both frond
s and rhizome
s have been used to brew beer
, and the rhizome starch
has been used as a substitute for arrowroot
. Bread can be made out of dried and powered rhizomes alone or with other flour
. American Indians
cooked the rhizomes, then peeled and ate them or pounded the starchy fiber into flour. In Japan
, starch from the rhizomes is used to make confections.
Bracken is called wiwnunmí útpas ‘huckleberry’s blanket’ by the Umatilla Indians of the Columbia River in the United States Northwest. The fronds were used to cover a basket full of huckleberries in order to keep them fresh.
The Māori of New Zealand
used the rhizomes of P. esculentum (aruhe) as a staple food, especially for exploring or hunting groups away from permanent settlements; much of the widespread distribution of this species in present-day New Zealand is in fact a consequence of prehistoric deforestation and subsequent tending of aruhe stands on rich soils (which produced the best rhizomes). The rhizomes were air-dried so that they could be stored and became lighter; for consumption, they were briefly heated and then softened with a patu aruhe (rhizome pounder); the starch could then be sucked from the fibers by each diner, or collected if it were to be prepared for a larger feast. Patu aruhe were significant items and several distinct styles were developed.
Bracken has also been used as a form of herb
al remedy. Powdered rhizome has been considered particularly effective against parasitic worms. American Indians ate raw rhizomes as a remedy for bronchitis
.
In East Asia, Pteridium aquilinum (fernbrake or bracken fiddlehead
s) is eaten as a vegetable, called warabi (蕨 / わらび) in Japan, gosari (고사리) in Korea, and juécài (蕨菜) in China and Taiwan. In Korea, a typical banchan
(small side dish) is gosari-namul (고사리나물) that consists of prepared fernbrake that has been sauteed. It is a component of the popular dish bibimbap
.
Bracken has been shown to be carcinogen
ic in some animals and is thought to be an important cause of the high incidence of stomach cancer
in Japan. It is currently under investigation as a possible source of new insecticide
s.
Uncooked bracken contains the enzyme
thiaminase
, which breaks down thiamine
. Eating excessive quantities of bracken can cause beriberi
, especially in creatures with simple stomachs. Ruminant
s are less vulnerable because they synthesize thiamine.
It was traditionally used (and still is in certain areas like mid Wales) for animal bedding, which later broke down to a rich mulch which could be used as fertilizer.
When used by gardeners as a winter mulch
it has been shown to reduce the loss of potassium
and nitrogen
and to lower soil pH
.
Other uses were as packing material for products such as earthenware, as a fuel, as a form of thatch. The ash was used for degreasing woolen cloth.
The ash of bracken fern was used in making forest glass
in Central Europe from about 1000 to 1700.
Bracken is currently harvested in the Lake District, Cumbria, United Kingdom to make commercial composts.
in China
, Japan
and Korea
. However, some researchers suspect a link between consumption and higher stomach cancer
rates. The spore
s have also been implicated as a carcinogen. Danish scientist Lars Holm Rasmussen released a study in 2004 showing that the carcinogenic compound in bracken, ptaquiloside
or PTQ, can leach from the plant into the water supply, which may explain an increase in the incidence of gastric and oesophageal cancers in bracken-rich areas.
In cattle, bracken poisoning can occur in both an acute and chronic form, acute poisoning being the most common. In pigs and horses bracken poisoning induces vitamin B deficiency. Poisoning usually occurs when there is a shortage of available grasses such as in drought
or snow
falls.
It damages blood cells and destroys thiamine
(vitamin B1). This in turn causes beriberi
, a disease linked to nutritional deficiency.
Also it contains ptaquiloside
, pterosins and some metabolites http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/ectoc/papers/01/
to control bracken either individually or in combination:
Selective sprays like Starane , Access, Metsulfuron 600WG etc. work well but only if sprayed in late autumn so the rhizomes store food for winter and hence absorb the poison.
Fern
A fern is any one of a group of about 12,000 species of plants belonging to the botanical group known as Pteridophyta. Unlike mosses, they have xylem and phloem . They have stems, leaves, and roots like other vascular plants...
s of the genus Pteridium. Ferns (Pteridophyta) are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells
Gamete
A gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
(eggs and sperm). Brackens are in the family Dennstaedtiaceae
Dennstaedtiaceae
Dennstaedtiaceae is one of fifteen families in the order Polypodiales, the most derived families within monilophytes . It includes the world's most abundant fern, Pteridium aquilinum . Members of the order generally have large, highly divided leaves and have either small, round intramarginal sori...
, which are noted for their large, highly divided leaves. They are commonly found on moorland
Moorland
Moorland or moor is a type of habitat, in the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome, found in upland areas, characterised by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils and heavy fog...
. Brackens are cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitan distribution
In biogeography, a taxon is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution if its range extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. For instance, the killer whale has a cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the world's oceans. Other examples include humans, the lichen...
, being found on all continents except Antarctica and in all environments except deserts. The genus probably has the widest distribution of any fern genus in the world.
In the past, the genus was commonly treated as having only one species, Pteridium aquilinum, but the recent trend is to subdivide it into about ten species.
As ferns, brackens do not have seeds or fruits, but the immature fronds, known as fiddleheads, are edible.
The word bracken is of Old Norse
Old Norse
Old Norse is a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during the Viking Age, until about 1300....
origin, related to the Swedish word bräken, meaning fern.
Description and biology
Evolutionarily, bracken may be considered to be one of the most successful ferns. It is also one of the oldest, with fossil records of over 55 million years old having been found. The plant sends up large, triangular fronds from a wide-creeping underground rootstock, and may form dense thickets. This rootstock may travel a metre or more underground between fronds. The fronds may grow up to 2.5 m (8 ft) long or longer with support, but typically are in the range of 0.6–2 m (2–6 feet) high. In cold environments bracken is winter-deciduousDeciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
, and, as it requires well-drained soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
, is generally found growing on the sides of hills.
It is an herbaceous
Herbaceous
A herbaceous plant is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level. They have no persistent woody stem above ground...
perennial plant
Perennial plant
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter lived annuals and biennials. The term is sometimes misused by commercial gardeners or horticulturalists to describe only herbaceous perennials...
, deciduous in winter. The frond
Frond
The term frond refers to a large, divided leaf. In both common usage and botanical nomenclature, the leaves of ferns are referred to as fronds and some botanists restrict the term to this group...
s are produced singly from an underground rhizome
Rhizome
In botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a characteristically horizontal stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes...
, and grow to be 1–3 m tall; the main stem is up to 1 cm diameter at the base. The rhizomes typically grow to a depth of 50 cm, although in some soils this may extend to more than a metre.
Sorus
A sorus is a cluster of sporangia .In fungi and lichens, the sorus is surrounded by an external layer. In some red algae it may take the form of a depression into the thallus....
. The linear pattern of these is different from other ferns which are circular and towards the centre.
Distribution
Pteridium aquilinum (Bracken or Common Bracken) is the most common species with a cosmopolitan distributionCosmopolitan distribution
In biogeography, a taxon is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution if its range extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. For instance, the killer whale has a cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the world's oceans. Other examples include humans, the lichen...
, occurring in temperate and subtropical regions throughout much of the world, including most of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
, and North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
in the Northern Hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
, and Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
and northern South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
in the Southern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
The Southern Hemisphere is the part of Earth that lies south of the equator. The word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' or "half sphere"...
. It is a prolific and abundant plant in the highlands of Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
. It is limited to altitudes of below 600 metres in the UK, does not like extreme cold temperatures, poorly drained Marshes or Fen
Fen
A fen is a type of wetland fed by mineral-rich surface water or groundwater. Fens are characterised by their water chemistry, which is neutral or alkaline, with relatively high dissolved mineral levels but few other plant nutrients...
. It causes such a problem of invading pastureland that at one time the British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
government had an eradication programme. Special filters have even been used on some British water supplies to filter out the bracken spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s. NBN distribution map for the United Kingdom
It has been observered growing in soils from pH 2.8 to 8.6. Exposure to cold or high pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
inhibits its growth.
Fungi associations
Woodland fungi can be found growing under the bracken canopy, for example Mycena epipterygia. Both Camarographium stephensii and Typhula quisquiliarisTyphula quisquiliaris
Typhula quisquiliaris, commonly known as the bracken club, is a species of club fungus in the family Typhulaceae. It produces small, white fruit bodies up to in height, each with a single distinct "head" and "stem". The head is fertile, while the stem attaches to a sclerotium embedded in the...
grow primarily from dead bracken stems.
Other plant associations
AllelopathyAllelopathy
Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon by which an organism produces one or more biochemicals that influence the growth, survival, and reproduction of other organisms. These biochemicals are known as allelochemicals and can have beneficial or detrimental effects on the target organisms...
: Bracken fern is known to produce and release allelopathic chemicals, which is an important factor in its ability to dominate other vegetation, particularly in regrowth after fire. Herb and tree seedling growth may be inhibited even after bracken fern is removed, apparently because active plant toxins remain in the soil.
Brackens substitute the characteristics of a woodland canopy
Canopy (forest)
In biology, the canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant community or crop, formed by plant crowns.For forests, canopy also refers to the upper layer or habitat zone, formed by mature tree crowns and including other biological organisms .Sometimes the term canopy is used to refer to the extent...
, and are important for giving shade to European plants such as common bluebell
Common Bluebell
Hyacinthoides non-scripta, commonly known as the common bluebell, is a spring-flowering bulbous perennial plant. -Taxonomy:...
and wood anemone
Anemone nemorosa
Anemone nemorosa is an early-spring flowering plant in the genus Anemone in the family Ranunculaceae, native to Europe. Common names include wood anemone, windflower, thimbleweed and smell fox, an allusion to the musky smell of the leaves...
, where the woodland does not exist. These plants are intolerant to stock trampling. Dead bracken provides a warm microclimate for development of the immature stages. Climbing corydalis, wild gladiolus
Gladiolus
Gladiolus is a genus of perennial bulbous flowering plants in the iris family...
and chickweed wintergreen also seem to benefit from the conditions found under bracken stands.
The high humidity helps mosses survive underneath including Campylopus flexuosus, Hypnum cupressiforme
Hypnum cupressiforme
Hypnum cupressiforme is a common and widespread species of moss belonging to the genus Hypnum. It is found in all continents except Antarctica and occurs in a wide variety of habitats and climatic zones. It typically grows on tree trunks, logs, walls, rocks and other surfaces...
, Polytrichum commune
Polytrichum commune
Polytrichum commune is a species of moss found in many regions with high humidity and rainfall...
, Pseudoscelopodium purum and Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus.
Animal species that use bracken
Brackens of the northern hemisphere are used as food plants by the larvaLarva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e of some Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera is a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world, encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies...
species including Dark Green Fritillary
Dark Green Fritillary
The Dark Green Fritillary is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family.The insect has a wide range in the Palearctic ecozone - Europe, Morocco, Iran , Siberia, Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan.-Subspecies:...
, Dot Moth
Dot Moth
The Dot Moth is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found throughout Europe apart from the south-east.This is a very distinctive species with very dark brown, almost black, forewings marked with a large white stigma from which the species gets its common name. The hindwings are grey with a dark...
, High Brown Fritillary
High Brown Fritillary
The High Brown Fritillary is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family, native from Europe across mainland Asia to Japan.The adults fly in July/August and lay eggs near to the larval food plants which are species of violets,...
, Gold Swift
Phymatopus
Phymatopus is a genus of moths of the family Hepialidae. There are six described species scattered across the Northern Hemisphere, placed in two groups.-Species:Phymatopus Wallengren, 1869*Phymatopus hecta Gold Swift - Europe...
, Map-winged Swift
Pharmacis
Pharmacis is a genus of moths of the family Hepialidae. There are eight described species found in Eurasia.-Species:*Pharmacis aemilianus - Italy*Pharmacis anselminae - Italy*Pharmacis bertrandi - France...
, Pearl-bordered Fritillary
Pearl-bordered Fritillary
The Pearl-bordered Fritillary is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family.It is orange with black spots on the upperside of its wing and has a wingspan of 38–46 mm. On the underside of the wings there is a row of silver pearly markings along the edge, which give the species its name...
, Orange Swift
Orange Swift
The Orange Swift , also known as "Orange Moth" , is a species of moth belonging to the family Hepialidae. It was previously placed in the genus Hepialus. It is distributed throughout Europe....
, Small Angle Shades
Small Angle Shades
The small angle shades is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is distributed throughout Europe.As the common name suggests, this species is closely related to the angle shades , and is considerably smaller , but does not especially resemble that species...
, Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary , called the Silver-bordered Fritillary in North America, is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family...
. They also form an important ecological partnership with plants such as violet and cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense
Melampyrum pratense
Melampyrum pratense or Common Cow-wheat is a plant species of the genus Melampyrum. This plant has an interesting relationship with ants. It produces a sugary liquid from small glands under its petals, which wood ants feed on...
) for various Boloria
Boloria
Boloria is a brush-footed butterfly genus. Clossiana is usually included with it nowadays, though some authors still consider it distinct and it seems to warrant recognition as a subgenus at least.-Species:Listed alphabetically....
Fritillary species.
It is also a favoured haunt of the sheep tick Ixodes ricinus
Ixodes ricinus
Ixodes ricinus, the castor bean tick, is a chiefly European species of hard-bodied tick. It may reach a length of when engorged with a blood meal, and can transmit both bacterial and viral pathogens such as the causative agents of Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis.-Description:In common...
which can carry Lyme Disease
Lyme disease
Lyme disease, or Lyme borreliosis, is an emerging infectious disease caused by at least three species of bacteria belonging to the genus Borrelia. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto is the main cause of Lyme disease in the United States, whereas Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii cause most...
.
Between 27 to 40 invertebrates (including nine moths) in the UK feed on bracken. These include the sawfly
Sawfly
Sawfly is the common name for insects belonging to suborder Symphyta of the order Hymenoptera. Sawflies are distinguishable from most other Hymenoptera by the broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax, and by their caterpillar-like larvae...
, a planthopper
Planthopper
A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha within the Hemiptera. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and from the fact that they often "hop" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers. However,...
(Dytroptis pteridis), the map-winged swift
Map-winged Swift
The Map-winged Swift is a moth belonging to the family Hepialidae. It has a patchy distribution throughout Eurasia...
moth caterpillar, brown silver-line moth caterpillar (Petrophora chlorosata
Petrophora chlorosata
The Brown Silver-line is a moth of the family Geometridae. It is found throughout Europe.The length of the forewings is 31–37 mm. The length of the forewings is 15–18 mm. The moth flies from the end of April to the end of June .The caterpillars feed on bracken.-Notes:#The flight season...
) and Paltodora
Paltodora
Paltodora is a genus of moth in the family Gelechiidae....
cytisella. The numbers feeding on the bracken increase as the season progresses due to the decreasing levels of toxin, and the production of nectaries in the spring, food for ants which in turn may kill any herbivorous insects in the vicinity.
Some birds such as the whinchat
Whinchat
The Whinchat Saxicola rubetra is a small migratory passerine bird breeding in Europe and western Asia and wintering in Africa.Its scientific name means "small rock-dweller", in reference to its habitat...
and the nightjar
Nightjar
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal or crepuscular birds with long wings, short legs and very short bills. They are sometimes referred to as goatsuckers from the mistaken belief that they suck milk from goats . Some New World species are named as nighthawks...
use bracken as their preferred habitats. The nightjar may lay its eggs on the bare ground under the bracken. The skylark
Skylark
The Skylark is a small passerine bird species. This lark breeds across most of Europe and Asia and in the mountains of north Africa. It is mainly resident in the west of its range, but eastern populations are more migratory, moving further south in winter. Even in the milder west of its range,...
often nests in bracken and uses it for cover. Other birds known to nest in or beneath bracken include the willow warbler
Willow Warbler
The Willow Warbler is a very common and widespread leaf warbler which breeds throughout northern and temperate Europe and Asia, from Ireland east to the Anadyr River basin in eastern Siberia...
(it will also use bracken to construct its nest), the tree pipit
Tree Pipit
Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis, is a small passerine bird which breeds across most of Europe and temperate western and central Asia. It is a long-distance migrant moving in winter to Africa and southern Asia....
, the yellowhammer
Yellowhammer
The Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella, is a passerine bird in the bunting family Emberizidae. It is common in all sorts of open areas with some scrub or trees and form small flocks in winter....
, the ring ouzel
Ring Ouzel
The Ring Ouzel is a European member of the thrush family Turdidae.It is the mountain equivalent of the closely related Common Blackbird, and breeds in gullies, rocky areas or scree slopes....
, the woodcock
Woodcock
The woodcocks are a group of seven or eight very similar living species of wading birds in the genus Scolopax. Only two woodcocks are widespread, the others being localized island endemics. Most are found in the Northern Hemisphere but a few range into Wallacea...
and the twite
Twite
The Twite is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae.The Twite is a small finch, similar in size and shape to a Linnet. Birds of the subspecies flavirostris are long, and those of the subspecies altaica are long. It lacks the red head patch and breast shown by the Linnet and the...
.
The European adder
Vipera berus
Vipera berus, the common European adder or common European viper, is a venomous viper species that is extremely widespread and can be found throughout most of Western Europe and all the way to Far East Asia. Known by a host of common names including Common adder and Common viper, adders have been...
can be found basking on bracken, the colour of their skin concealing them.
Uses
Fiddlehead
Fiddleheads or Fiddlehead greens are the furled fronds of a young fern, harvested for use as a vegetable. Left on the plant, each fiddlehead would unroll into a new frond...
s (the immature, tightly curled emerging fronds) have been considered edible by many cultures throughout history, and are still commonly used today as a foodstuff. Bracken fiddleheads are either consumed fresh (and cooked) or preserved by salting, pickling, or sun drying. In Korea, where they are called gosari (고사리), they are a typical ingredient in the mixed rice dish called bibimbap
Bibimbap
Bibimbap is a signature Korean dish. The word literally means "mixed meal." Bibimbap is served as a bowl of warm white rice topped with namul and gochujang . A raw or fried egg and sliced meat are common additions. The ingredients are stirred together thoroughly just before eating...
.
Both frond
Frond
The term frond refers to a large, divided leaf. In both common usage and botanical nomenclature, the leaves of ferns are referred to as fronds and some botanists restrict the term to this group...
s and rhizome
Rhizome
In botany and dendrology, a rhizome is a characteristically horizontal stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes...
s have been used to brew beer
Beer
Beer is the world's most widely consumed andprobably oldest alcoholic beverage; it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of sugars, mainly derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted barley and malted wheat...
, and the rhizome starch
Starch
Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by all green plants as an energy store...
has been used as a substitute for arrowroot
Arrowroot
Arrowroot, or obedience plant , Bermuda arrowroot, araru, ararao, is a large perennial herb found in rainforest habitats...
. Bread can be made out of dried and powered rhizomes alone or with other flour
Flour
Flour is a powder which is made by grinding cereal grains, other seeds or roots . It is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cultures, making the availability of adequate supplies of flour a major economic and political issue at various times throughout history...
. American Indians
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
cooked the rhizomes, then peeled and ate them or pounded the starchy fiber into flour. In Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, starch from the rhizomes is used to make confections.
Bracken is called wiwnunmí útpas ‘huckleberry’s blanket’ by the Umatilla Indians of the Columbia River in the United States Northwest. The fronds were used to cover a basket full of huckleberries in order to keep them fresh.
The Māori of New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
used the rhizomes of P. esculentum (aruhe) as a staple food, especially for exploring or hunting groups away from permanent settlements; much of the widespread distribution of this species in present-day New Zealand is in fact a consequence of prehistoric deforestation and subsequent tending of aruhe stands on rich soils (which produced the best rhizomes). The rhizomes were air-dried so that they could be stored and became lighter; for consumption, they were briefly heated and then softened with a patu aruhe (rhizome pounder); the starch could then be sucked from the fibers by each diner, or collected if it were to be prepared for a larger feast. Patu aruhe were significant items and several distinct styles were developed.
Bracken has also been used as a form of herb
Herb
Except in botanical usage, an herb is "any plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavoring, food, medicine, or perfume" or "a part of such a plant as used in cooking"...
al remedy. Powdered rhizome has been considered particularly effective against parasitic worms. American Indians ate raw rhizomes as a remedy for bronchitis
Bronchitis
Acute bronchitis is an inflammation of the large bronchi in the lungs that is usually caused by viruses or bacteria and may last several days or weeks. Characteristic symptoms include cough, sputum production, and shortness of breath and wheezing related to the obstruction of the inflamed airways...
.
In East Asia, Pteridium aquilinum (fernbrake or bracken fiddlehead
Fiddlehead
Fiddleheads or Fiddlehead greens are the furled fronds of a young fern, harvested for use as a vegetable. Left on the plant, each fiddlehead would unroll into a new frond...
s) is eaten as a vegetable, called warabi (蕨 / わらび) in Japan, gosari (고사리) in Korea, and juécài (蕨菜) in China and Taiwan. In Korea, a typical banchan
Banchan
Banchan refers to small dishes of food served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. This word is used both in the singular and plural....
(small side dish) is gosari-namul (고사리나물) that consists of prepared fernbrake that has been sauteed. It is a component of the popular dish bibimbap
Bibimbap
Bibimbap is a signature Korean dish. The word literally means "mixed meal." Bibimbap is served as a bowl of warm white rice topped with namul and gochujang . A raw or fried egg and sliced meat are common additions. The ingredients are stirred together thoroughly just before eating...
.
Bracken has been shown to be carcinogen
Carcinogen
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes...
ic in some animals and is thought to be an important cause of the high incidence of stomach cancer
Stomach cancer
Gastric cancer, commonly referred to as stomach cancer, can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs; particularly the esophagus, lungs, lymph nodes, and the liver...
in Japan. It is currently under investigation as a possible source of new insecticide
Insecticide
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against the eggs and larvae of insects respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to be one of the major factors behind...
s.
Uncooked bracken contains the enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
thiaminase
Thiaminase
Thiaminase is an enzyme that metabolizes or breaks down thiamine into two molecular parts.The old name was "Aneurinase".There are two types: -Sources:Source include:* Bracken , Nardoo and other plants.* Some fish including carp and goldfish....
, which breaks down thiamine
Thiamine
Thiamine or thiamin or vitamin B1 , named as the "thio-vitamine" is a water-soluble vitamin of the B complex. First named aneurin for the detrimental neurological effects if not present in the diet, it was eventually assigned the generic descriptor name vitamin B1. Its phosphate derivatives are...
. Eating excessive quantities of bracken can cause beriberi
Beriberi
Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by a thiamine deficiency in the diet. Thiamine is involved in the breakdown of energy molecules such as glucose and is also found on the membranes of neurons...
, especially in creatures with simple stomachs. Ruminant
Ruminant
A ruminant is a mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first compartment of the stomach, principally through bacterial actions, then regurgitating the semi-digested mass, now known as cud, and chewing it again...
s are less vulnerable because they synthesize thiamine.
It was traditionally used (and still is in certain areas like mid Wales) for animal bedding, which later broke down to a rich mulch which could be used as fertilizer.
When used by gardeners as a winter mulch
Mulch
In agriculture and gardening, is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and seed germination. Mulching in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors....
it has been shown to reduce the loss of potassium
Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction.Potassium and sodium are...
and nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
and to lower soil pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
.
Other uses were as packing material for products such as earthenware, as a fuel, as a form of thatch. The ash was used for degreasing woolen cloth.
The ash of bracken fern was used in making forest glass
Forest glass
The term Forest glass or the German name Waldglas is given to late Medieval glass produced in North-Western Europe from about 1000-1700 AD using wood ash and sand as the main raw materials and made in factories known as glass-houses in forest areas...
in Central Europe from about 1000 to 1700.
Bracken is currently harvested in the Lake District, Cumbria, United Kingdom to make commercial composts.
Poisoning
The plant is carcinogenic to animals such as mice, rats, horses and cattle when ingested, although they will usually avoid it unless nothing else is available. Young stems are quite commonly used as a vegetableVegetable
The noun vegetable usually means an edible plant or part of a plant other than a sweet fruit or seed. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant....
in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
and Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
. However, some researchers suspect a link between consumption and higher stomach cancer
Stomach cancer
Gastric cancer, commonly referred to as stomach cancer, can develop in any part of the stomach and may spread throughout the stomach and to other organs; particularly the esophagus, lungs, lymph nodes, and the liver...
rates. The spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s have also been implicated as a carcinogen. Danish scientist Lars Holm Rasmussen released a study in 2004 showing that the carcinogenic compound in bracken, ptaquiloside
Ptaquiloside
Ptaquiloside, the major toxin of bracken, was first isolated in 1983, and its chemical stereostructure was determined to be norsesquiterpene glucoside of illudane type by Yamada and co-workers....
or PTQ, can leach from the plant into the water supply, which may explain an increase in the incidence of gastric and oesophageal cancers in bracken-rich areas.
In cattle, bracken poisoning can occur in both an acute and chronic form, acute poisoning being the most common. In pigs and horses bracken poisoning induces vitamin B deficiency. Poisoning usually occurs when there is a shortage of available grasses such as in drought
Drought
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
or snow
Snow
Snow is a form of precipitation within the Earth's atmosphere in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes that fall from clouds. Since snow is composed of small ice particles, it is a granular material. It has an open and therefore soft structure, unless packed by...
falls.
It damages blood cells and destroys thiamine
Thiamine
Thiamine or thiamin or vitamin B1 , named as the "thio-vitamine" is a water-soluble vitamin of the B complex. First named aneurin for the detrimental neurological effects if not present in the diet, it was eventually assigned the generic descriptor name vitamin B1. Its phosphate derivatives are...
(vitamin B1). This in turn causes beriberi
Beriberi
Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by a thiamine deficiency in the diet. Thiamine is involved in the breakdown of energy molecules such as glucose and is also found on the membranes of neurons...
, a disease linked to nutritional deficiency.
Also it contains ptaquiloside
Ptaquiloside
Ptaquiloside, the major toxin of bracken, was first isolated in 1983, and its chemical stereostructure was determined to be norsesquiterpene glucoside of illudane type by Yamada and co-workers....
, pterosins and some metabolites http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/ectoc/papers/01/
Control
Various techniques are recommended by Natural EnglandNatural England
Natural England is the non-departmental public body of the UK government responsible for ensuring that England's natural environment, including its land, flora and fauna, freshwater and marine environments, geology and soils, are protected and improved...
to control bracken either individually or in combination:
- CuttingCuttingCutting is the separation of a physical object, or a portion of a physical object, into two portions, through the application of an acutely directed force. An implement commonly used for cutting is the knife or in medical cases the scalpel...
— once or twice a year, for at least 3 years - Crushing — using rollers, again for at least 3 years
- LivestockLivestockLivestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
treading — during winter, encouraging livestock to bracken areas with food. They trample the developing plants and allow frost to penetrate the rhizomes. - Burning — useful for removing the litter, but may be counter-productive as bracken is considered to be a fire-adapted species
- Ploughing — late in the season followed by sowing seed
- HerbicideHerbicideHerbicides, also commonly known as weedkillers, are pesticides used to kill unwanted plants. Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the growth of the weed and are often synthetic "imitations" of plant...
— AsulamAsulamAsulam is a herbicide invented by May & Baker Ltd, part of the Rhône-Poulenc Group, and internally called M&B9057 and used in horticulture and agriculture. It is used to kill bracken and docks also used as an antiviral agent...
is selective for ferns, and Glyphosate is not but has the advantage that the effects can be seen soon after application. They are applied when the fronds are fully unfurled to ensure that the chemical is fully absorbed. Natural EnglandNatural EnglandNatural England is the non-departmental public body of the UK government responsible for ensuring that England's natural environment, including its land, flora and fauna, freshwater and marine environments, geology and soils, are protected and improved...
recommends that only AsulamAsulamAsulam is a herbicide invented by May & Baker Ltd, part of the Rhône-Poulenc Group, and internally called M&B9057 and used in horticulture and agriculture. It is used to kill bracken and docks also used as an antiviral agent...
can be sprayed aerially, Glyphosate requires spot-treatment e.g. using a weedwiper or knapsack spray.
Selective sprays like Starane , Access, Metsulfuron 600WG etc. work well but only if sprayed in late autumn so the rhizomes store food for winter and hence absorb the poison.
- Allowing plants to grow in its place, e.g., the establishment of woodland, causes shade that inhibits bracken growth
External links
- World fern species list — Pteridium
- Independent page devoted to bracken (uses older classification scheme)
- Natural England — Bracken control, vegetation restoration and land management
- Bracken for Butterflies by Butterfly ConservationButterfly ConservationButterfly Conservation is an insect conservation organisation in the United Kingdom. It is one of the largest insect conservation organisations in the world.-History of the Organisation:...
- Edibility of Bracken: Identification and edible parts of Bracken
- Dalefoot Composts: made using bracken