Brunei Bay
Encyclopedia
Brunei Bay is the gateway to Brunei
and Borneo
. It is located 4°45'-5°02'N, 114°58'-115°10'E; east of Bandar Seri Begawan
. The Brunei
portion of the bay is in two sections separated by a finger of Sarawak
(Limbang
) about 6km wide at the coast. It is a deeply indented bay with an area of about 250,000 ha (c.50,ooo ha in Brunei
territory), shared between Brunei Darussalam and the East Malaysian States of Sarawak
and Sabah
. A chain of islands including the large Malaysian island of Labuan
forms the boundary between the bay and the South China Sea
. Most of the east and south shores of the bay are covered in extensive mangrove forests with associated mudflats and sandflats at the mouths of the major estuaries. The mangrove forests form a continuous, intact forest within Bruneian territory, but those within the adjacent Sarawak
territory have been largely clear-felled to supply the wood-chip industry. Freshwater flows into the bay via a labyrinth of interconnecting channels and waterways.
The major rivers entering the Brunei Estuary in the southwest are the Brunei
, Limbang, Temburong, Bangar, Trusan, and Pandaruan
. The Limbang
and Temburong drain catchments which are predominantly primary rainforest, and carry high silt loads. The smaller Brunei River
receives the drainage from the city of Bandar Seri Begawan
and its environment, and is therefore subject to considerable urban pollution. Several smaller rivers drain the extensive peat swamp forests of Temburong District
. These carry very small silt loads, but are rich in peat and woody debris.The outer bay varies in depth from about 20 to 40 metres; the inner bay is generally less than 5m deep. The massive inflow of freshwater reduces the salinity to only 2.6 p.p.t. in places, compared with a mean offshore salinity of 31.5 p.p.t. The retention time for water in the bay has been estimated at 2-4 weeks. The tides are diurnal for two or three days in each month and substantially diurnal for the remainder of the month. There is a secondary tide, however, which gradually increases and decreases in magnitude so that for a few days in each month there are semi-diurnal tides of similar amplitude. The tidal amplitude at Muara
ranges from about 2.0m at spring tides to 0.9m at neap tides.
1. Avicennia/Sonneratia forest on the seaward edge, dominated by A. marina and S. alba, with some immature Rhizophora apiculata and Lumnitzera coccinea;
2. Rhizophora forest dominated by R. apiculata, with other species such as Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Sonneratia acida and Aegiceras corniculatum in the less frequently inundated zone.
3. A belt of the nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) between the major rivers in the lower reaches of the estuary and along the upper reaches of the rivers.
4. Heritiera/Excoecaria forest dominated by H. littoralis and E. agallocha, forming a landward extension of the Nypa belt.
5. Peat swamp forest with species such as Dyera spp. mixed with a variety of mangrove associates along the riverbanks in the upper reaches of the tidal influence.
6. Sandy areas on exposed coasts and offshore islands with Casuarina equisetifolia and some Melastoma malabaricum and Barringtonia asialica.
The vegetation to the landward of the mangrove in Temburong District is dominated by peat swamp forest, with mangrove extending along the major rivers.
); some of the surrounding land is privately owned.
are included within the Labu-Selirong Wildlife Sanctuary, established in 1948 (2,499 ha) and 1954 (8,984 ha). In addition, there are small protected areas of mangrove forest along the Sungai Brunei. Wildlife enjoys some protection under the Brunei Wildlife Protection Enactment of 1978.
and Sabah
, to form a continuous zone of protected land in sectors of the bay where mangroves and intertidal flats predominate. Caldecott (1987) has proposed that a Joint Management Commission for Brunei Bay be established, with the participation of the national governments of Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia, and the state governments of Sarawak
and Sabah
. The Commission would be formally responsible for the permanent management of the bay's natural resources on a rational and sustained basis.
(Temburong). A commercial port, a naval base and various recreation facilities are located in the northwest of the area. Over 40 super-tankers are laid up at moorings within the bay.
. It seems likely, however, that the high sulphide content of the soil would render such areas highly unsuitable for aquaculture (Howes & Sahat, in prep).
, as well as the sewage effluent and urban runoff from the city itself. As a result, there is now a significant amount of pollution in the inner bay, and this is increasing. The most immediate threat to Brunei Bay as a whole, however, is destruction of mangrove forest. In Brunei, the cutting of wood for poles and for making charcoal has been carried out at such a low intensity that there appears to have been no serious damage to the mangrove's role in fishery
maintenance. However, in recent years the mangroves within Malaysian territory have been seriously over-exploited, and this may now be affecting the fishery resources throughout the bay. Extensive logging activities and clear-felling in the water catchment areas of the rivers also pose a threat to the bay by affecting the water regime. Some mangrove is being cleared for urban and industrial development along the Sungai Brunei, and this could increase in the future.
s are of great importance to the economy of most human communities located around the bay, since they support abundant populations of finfish, prawns and other aquatic animals which are routinely harvested for subsistence consumption or sale. It has been estimated that the mangrove swamps initiate a food chain by depositing sufficient plant material to allow each hectare to support up to 90 kg of prawns each year. In 1985, the full-time registered fishermen in the Brunei
portion of the bay landed 2,330 metric tonnes of finfish and prawns. The total number of full-time and part-time inshore fishermen active in the bay as a whole almost certainly exceeds 10,000 individuals (Caldecott, 1987). The waterways are very important for transportation, and the area has considerable potential for outdoor recreation, conservation education and scientific research.
portion of the bay in May 1986.
The mangrove forests support significant populations of the Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) and leaf monkeys (Presbytis sp), as well as large colonies of flying foxes (Pieropus vampyrus). Eleven species of prawns have been recorded in the bay. Three of these, Penaeus merguiensis, P. indicus and Metapenaeus brevicornis, are of high commercial importance, and two others are of minor commercial importance.
Preliminary studies suggest that the intertidal flats support a rather poor zoo-benthos compared with that at many other sites in Southeast Asia
. In a recent study, five major taxonomic groups were found from eight sampling sites. Crustacea (Natantia) were the most abundant group, followed by Polychaeta, Bivalvia, Pisces and Gastropoda. Natantia (prawns) were more abundant in the outer estuary, whilst Polychaeta dominated in the mangrove channels near Bandar Seri Begawan
sewage outflow (Sahat, 1987; Howes & Sahat, in prep). The poor zoo-benthos may be attributable to the high acidity of the water draining into the bay from the peat swamp forests behind the mangroves.
.
Brunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
and Borneo
Borneo
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located north of Java Island, Indonesia, at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia....
. It is located 4°45'-5°02'N, 114°58'-115°10'E; east of Bandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan, with an estimated population 140,000 , is the capital and largest city of the Sultanate of Brunei...
. The Brunei
Brunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
portion of the bay is in two sections separated by a finger of Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
(Limbang
Limbang
Limbang is a border town and the capital of Limbang District in the Limbang Division of northern Sarawak, East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. The division has an area of 3,978.1 square kilometers, and a population of 42,600...
) about 6km wide at the coast. It is a deeply indented bay with an area of about 250,000 ha (c.50,ooo ha in Brunei
Brunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
territory), shared between Brunei Darussalam and the East Malaysian States of Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
and Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
. A chain of islands including the large Malaysian island of Labuan
Labuan
Labuan is a federal territory in East Malaysia. It is an island off the coast of the state of Sabah. Labuan's capital is Victoria and is best known as an offshore financial centre offering international financial and business services via Labuan IBFC since 1990 as well as being an offshore support...
forms the boundary between the bay and the South China Sea
South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Singapore and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around...
. Most of the east and south shores of the bay are covered in extensive mangrove forests with associated mudflats and sandflats at the mouths of the major estuaries. The mangrove forests form a continuous, intact forest within Bruneian territory, but those within the adjacent Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
territory have been largely clear-felled to supply the wood-chip industry. Freshwater flows into the bay via a labyrinth of interconnecting channels and waterways.
The major rivers entering the Brunei Estuary in the southwest are the Brunei
Brunei River
The Brunei River is a river which flows through Brunei and empties into Brunei Bay towards the North-east direction. The Istana Nurul Iman, the official residence of the Sultan of Brunei, stands on its banks. The Brunei River is the shortest major river in Brunei Darussalam. Brunei Darussalam's...
, Limbang, Temburong, Bangar, Trusan, and Pandaruan
Pandaruan River
The Pandaruan River is an international river on the island of Borneo. The river forms part of the international border between Brunei and Malaysia. The river separates Limbang District, Sarawak, Malaysia and the Temburong District, an exclave of Brunei. The river empties into Brunei Bay. There is...
. The Limbang
Limbang
Limbang is a border town and the capital of Limbang District in the Limbang Division of northern Sarawak, East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. The division has an area of 3,978.1 square kilometers, and a population of 42,600...
and Temburong drain catchments which are predominantly primary rainforest, and carry high silt loads. The smaller Brunei River
Brunei River
The Brunei River is a river which flows through Brunei and empties into Brunei Bay towards the North-east direction. The Istana Nurul Iman, the official residence of the Sultan of Brunei, stands on its banks. The Brunei River is the shortest major river in Brunei Darussalam. Brunei Darussalam's...
receives the drainage from the city of Bandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan, with an estimated population 140,000 , is the capital and largest city of the Sultanate of Brunei...
and its environment, and is therefore subject to considerable urban pollution. Several smaller rivers drain the extensive peat swamp forests of Temburong District
Temburong District
Temburong is the eastern-most district in Brunei. It is an exclave, as it is separated from the rest of Brunei by Malaysia and Brunei Bay. Its capital is Bangar. The main town located in the district is Pekan Bangar.-Geography:...
. These carry very small silt loads, but are rich in peat and woody debris.The outer bay varies in depth from about 20 to 40 metres; the inner bay is generally less than 5m deep. The massive inflow of freshwater reduces the salinity to only 2.6 p.p.t. in places, compared with a mean offshore salinity of 31.5 p.p.t. The retention time for water in the bay has been estimated at 2-4 weeks. The tides are diurnal for two or three days in each month and substantially diurnal for the remainder of the month. There is a secondary tide, however, which gradually increases and decreases in magnitude so that for a few days in each month there are semi-diurnal tides of similar amplitude. The tidal amplitude at Muara
Muara
Muara means Estuary in the Malay and Indonesian language, and is a name given to several locations in Southeast Asia.* Muara, Brunei is a town in the Brunei-Muara District, Brunei...
ranges from about 2.0m at spring tides to 0.9m at neap tides.
Principal vegetation
Mangrove swamps dominated by species of Rhizophora, notably R. apiculata, with mature forest up to 30m in height. Howes and Sahat (in prep) recognized six distinct vegetation zones within their survey area in Brunei Estuary:1. Avicennia/Sonneratia forest on the seaward edge, dominated by A. marina and S. alba, with some immature Rhizophora apiculata and Lumnitzera coccinea;
2. Rhizophora forest dominated by R. apiculata, with other species such as Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Sonneratia acida and Aegiceras corniculatum in the less frequently inundated zone.
3. A belt of the nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) between the major rivers in the lower reaches of the estuary and along the upper reaches of the rivers.
4. Heritiera/Excoecaria forest dominated by H. littoralis and E. agallocha, forming a landward extension of the Nypa belt.
5. Peat swamp forest with species such as Dyera spp. mixed with a variety of mangrove associates along the riverbanks in the upper reaches of the tidal influence.
6. Sandy areas on exposed coasts and offshore islands with Casuarina equisetifolia and some Melastoma malabaricum and Barringtonia asialica.
The vegetation to the landward of the mangrove in Temburong District is dominated by peat swamp forest, with mangrove extending along the major rivers.
Land tenure
The wetland is state owned (Government of BruneiBrunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
); some of the surrounding land is privately owned.
Conservation measures taken
Some 483 ha. of mangrove forest and peat swamp forest in north Temburong DistrictTemburong District
Temburong is the eastern-most district in Brunei. It is an exclave, as it is separated from the rest of Brunei by Malaysia and Brunei Bay. Its capital is Bangar. The main town located in the district is Pekan Bangar.-Geography:...
are included within the Labu-Selirong Wildlife Sanctuary, established in 1948 (2,499 ha) and 1954 (8,984 ha). In addition, there are small protected areas of mangrove forest along the Sungai Brunei. Wildlife enjoys some protection under the Brunei Wildlife Protection Enactment of 1978.
Conservation measures proposed
There is a proposal to include all uninhabited islands within a conservation management zone. It has been recommended that a large proportion of the mangroves and intertidal mudflats within Brunei Bay be protected in an International Coastal Resource Conservation Zone (Howes & Sahat, in prep). This would involve liaison between Brunei Darussalam and the Malaysian States of SarawakSarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
and Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
, to form a continuous zone of protected land in sectors of the bay where mangroves and intertidal flats predominate. Caldecott (1987) has proposed that a Joint Management Commission for Brunei Bay be established, with the participation of the national governments of Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia, and the state governments of Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
and Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
. The Commission would be formally responsible for the permanent management of the bay's natural resources on a rational and sustained basis.
Land use
Fishing for fin-fish and prawns, some rearing of Green Mussels (Perna viridis) for local markets, and some harvesting of mangroves and mangrove products for local use. The mangroves were formerly used for firewood and for the production of charcoal and tannin, but in recent years the main use has been for piling material which resists waterlogged soils. The fronds of Nypa fruticans are used for roofing material and weaving, while the sap is used to make a sweet drink and the fruits are eaten. The waterways are still very important for inter-urban transport between coastal towns and the detached portion of BruneiBrunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
(Temburong). A commercial port, a naval base and various recreation facilities are located in the northwest of the area. Over 40 super-tankers are laid up at moorings within the bay.
Possible changes in land use
Proposals have been made to clear areas of mangrove for rackishwater aquaculture schemes, particularly in Temburong DistrictTemburong District
Temburong is the eastern-most district in Brunei. It is an exclave, as it is separated from the rest of Brunei by Malaysia and Brunei Bay. Its capital is Bangar. The main town located in the district is Pekan Bangar.-Geography:...
. It seems likely, however, that the high sulphide content of the soil would render such areas highly unsuitable for aquaculture (Howes & Sahat, in prep).
Disturbances and threats
The Sungai Brunei receives the untreated domestic sewage from a 'water village' of 36,000 inhabitants near Bandar Seri BegawanBandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan, with an estimated population 140,000 , is the capital and largest city of the Sultanate of Brunei...
, as well as the sewage effluent and urban runoff from the city itself. As a result, there is now a significant amount of pollution in the inner bay, and this is increasing. The most immediate threat to Brunei Bay as a whole, however, is destruction of mangrove forest. In Brunei, the cutting of wood for poles and for making charcoal has been carried out at such a low intensity that there appears to have been no serious damage to the mangrove's role in fishery
Fishery
Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats,...
maintenance. However, in recent years the mangroves within Malaysian territory have been seriously over-exploited, and this may now be affecting the fishery resources throughout the bay. Extensive logging activities and clear-felling in the water catchment areas of the rivers also pose a threat to the bay by affecting the water regime. Some mangrove is being cleared for urban and industrial development along the Sungai Brunei, and this could increase in the future.
Economic and social values
The mangrove forests and mudflatMudflat
Mudflats or mud flats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas such as bays, bayous, lagoons, and estuaries. Mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud, resulting from deposition of...
s are of great importance to the economy of most human communities located around the bay, since they support abundant populations of finfish, prawns and other aquatic animals which are routinely harvested for subsistence consumption or sale. It has been estimated that the mangrove swamps initiate a food chain by depositing sufficient plant material to allow each hectare to support up to 90 kg of prawns each year. In 1985, the full-time registered fishermen in the Brunei
Brunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
portion of the bay landed 2,330 metric tonnes of finfish and prawns. The total number of full-time and part-time inshore fishermen active in the bay as a whole almost certainly exceeds 10,000 individuals (Caldecott, 1987). The waterways are very important for transportation, and the area has considerable potential for outdoor recreation, conservation education and scientific research.
Fauna
Howes and Sahat (in prep) collected 79 species of fishes belonging to at least 34 families in mangrove areas within Brunei Estuary. About half of these species were of some importance in the Brunei markets. The most commonly encountered species, using a variety of sampling techniques, were catfish (Aniidae), Caranx spp., Sardinella spp., Drepane punctata, Coilia dussumieri, Liza vaigiensis, Mugil sp, Plotosus anguillaris, Scatophagus argus. Scomberomorus guttatus and Siganus spp. The intertidal mudflats and sandflats provide foraging areas for a number of migratory shorebirds. Censuses at seven sites in October and November 1986 produced a total of 633 shorebirds of 17 species (Howes & Sahat, in prep). The commonest species were Pluvialis dominica, Charadrius mongolus, Numenius phaeopus, Tringa lotanus, Xenus cinereus, Actitis hypoleucos and Heteroscelus brevipes. Species typical of muddy substrates, such as Limnodromus semipalmatus, Calidris tenuirostris and C. ruficollis, were very scarce. Other waterfowl recorded during the survey included 39 Egretta sacra, small numbers of Butorides striatus, Egretta garzetta, E. alba, Ardea sumatrana and Leptoptilos javanicus, and over 360 terns of seven species, mainly Chlidonias hybrida, C. leucoptera, Sterna dougallii and S. albifrons. The rare and possibly endangered Chinese Egret (Egretta eulophotes) appears to be a regular winter visitor to Brunei Bay in small numbers. Howes and Sahat observed 12 during their survey of the Brunei Estuary in October/November 1986, and reported a maximum of 13 in the nearby SarawakSarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
portion of the bay in May 1986.
The mangrove forests support significant populations of the Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) and leaf monkeys (Presbytis sp), as well as large colonies of flying foxes (Pieropus vampyrus). Eleven species of prawns have been recorded in the bay. Three of these, Penaeus merguiensis, P. indicus and Metapenaeus brevicornis, are of high commercial importance, and two others are of minor commercial importance.
Preliminary studies suggest that the intertidal flats support a rather poor zoo-benthos compared with that at many other sites in Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
. In a recent study, five major taxonomic groups were found from eight sampling sites. Crustacea (Natantia) were the most abundant group, followed by Polychaeta, Bivalvia, Pisces and Gastropoda. Natantia (prawns) were more abundant in the outer estuary, whilst Polychaeta dominated in the mangrove channels near Bandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan
Bandar Seri Begawan, with an estimated population 140,000 , is the capital and largest city of the Sultanate of Brunei...
sewage outflow (Sahat, 1987; Howes & Sahat, in prep). The poor zoo-benthos may be attributable to the high acidity of the water draining into the bay from the peat swamp forests behind the mangroves.
Special floral values
Brunei Bay contains one of the largest tracts of relatively undisturbed mangrove forest in eastern AsiaAsia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
.