Burma–France relations
Encyclopedia
France-Burma relations refers to interstate relations of Burma and France
. Relations began in the early 18th century, as the French East India Company
was attempting to extend its influence into Southeast Asia
. France became involved upon the building of a shipyard in 1729 in the city of Syriam. The 1740 revolt of the Mon
against Burmese
rule however forced the French to depart in 1742. They were able to return to Siam in 1751 when the Mon requested French assistance against the Burmese. A French envoy, Sieur de Bruno
was sent to evaluate the situation and help in the defense against the Burmese. French warships were sent to support the Mon rebellion, but in vain. In 1756, the Burmese under Alaungpaya
vanquished the Mon. Many French were captured and incorporated into the Burmese Army as an elite gunner corps, under Chevalier Milard. In 1769, official contacts resume when a trade treaty was signed between king Hsinbyushin
and the French East India Company.
Soon however, France became embroiled in the French revolution
and Napoleonic wars
, giving way to overwhelming British influence in Burma. French contacts with Burma, effectively a British colony, would become almost non-existent, while from the second half of the 19th century France would concentrate in the establishment of French Indochina
and the conflicts with China leading to the Sino-French war
.
The Governor-General
of French India
Joseph François Dupleix
had started to show interest in Burma since 1727, on account of the country's abundance in teak
and crude oil. As a result, a French shipyard was established in the city of Syriam in 1729, building ships for Pondicherry. The shipyard was abandoned in 1742 due to the revolt of the Mon.
with the objective of developing French influence in the country. He arrived at Pegu in July 1751. Sieur de Bruno reported back that a few hundred French troops would be able to take control of the Irrawaddy Delta
, triggering an official request by Dupleix to the French court to obtain the necessary military support. Sieur de Bruno obtained a treaty and formed an alliance between France and the Mons.
Governor Saunders
of Madras attempted to counter the French moves in the region by sending a military force to survey the island of Negrais under Captain Thomas Taylor
. He also tried to negotiate the cession of Syriam to the British. The Mons firmly opposed these attempts at British encroachment under the counsel of Sieur de Bruno, who had considerable influence at the Mon court and was especially on excellent terms with the Heir Apparent. Saunders finally decided to occupy Negrais forcibly, occupying the island on 26 April, 1753.
However, Dupleix's proposals to take control of the Irrawady delta were rejected by the French government, strongly limiting his capacity to intervene there.
sacked Ava
in 1752, and overran most of Burma, putting an end to the Toungoo dynasty
. Soon however, the Burmese were able to repeal the Mons under the leadership of Alaungpaya
. The Mons had to retreat, as Alaunpaya first recovered northern Burma, capturing the city of Ava
on January 14, 1754. By February 1755, Central Burma was secured. The Burmese soon threatened the capital of Pegu, as well as the city of Syriam.
In Syriam, Sieur de Bruno was helping the Mons in organizing their defense. Sieur de Bruno was insistently requesting more help from Pondicherry. He acted as a military advisor to the Mons, and French warships participated in fighting against the Burmese in Syriam and Dagon (ancient Rangoon).
Alaungpaya on the other hand was asking the British for guns and ammunitions. Alaungpaya managed to capture Syriam in July 1756. Sieur de Bruno and the other French with him were captured and tortured. Two French ships arriving two days after the capture of Syriam, Fleury and Galathée, with reinforcements and supplies were also captured by Alaungpaya, when Alaungpaya forced Bruno to write a letter to trick them. The French captains were killed and the 200 sailors forced to join the Burmese army Sieur de Bruno was roasted to death. From the two ships, Alaugpaya managed to put his hands on 35 ships guns (24 pounders), five field guns, 1300 muskets, and a large quantity of ammunitions. France was precluded from further intervention in Burma, with the advent of the Seven Years' War
in Europe
(1756–1763).
and the Manchus. One of them, the Chevalier Milard, was ultimately nominated Captain of the Guard and Master of the Ordnance for the Konbaung dynasty
.
When they reached old age, the French soldiers were able to retire Shwebo villages, with the spiritual support of a priest. To this day, some Catholic villages are still extant in the area where an awareness of some European ancestry remains.
was sent to resume official French East India Company
contacts with Burma. He obtained a trade treaty, and the establishment of a French factory in the city of Rangoon.
The arrival of the embassy was facilitated by Chevalier Milard. The king of Burma Hsinbyushin
welcomed Feraud's embassy, and accepted Ferraud's offer for trade, in exchange for the supply of guns and ammunitions. The king remitted a letter of agreement, which Feraud brought back to Pondicherry.
Given the previous involvement of the French with the dissident Mon
under Sieur de Bruno
, the king of Burma clearly specified that French arm trade should involved him only.
As a result of the embassy, the French obtained a large ground in Rangoon where they were able to establish warehouses.
in 1789 and the rise of Napoleon, France became less capable of involvement in faraway theaters such as Burma. Great Britain on the contrary was able to increase its influence, leading to the First Anglo–Burmese War (1823–1826) and the gradual extinction of Burmese sovereignty and independence. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852), the British Empire
annexed Lower Burma
.
In 1872, king Mindon
sent an embassy to Europe, led by his confidant, the Kinwun Mingyi, leading to the signature of a commercial treaty with France on January 24, 1873. Further, in 1883, king Thibaw Min
attempted to break the stalemate with Great Britain by trying to establish an alliance with France to obtain recognition and aid. This led to strong tensions between France and Great Britain. In the end, in spite of the dispatch of a Burmese mission to Paris, France refused in 1884 to sign a treaty promising that France would come to the support of Burma in case a third power would attack it, only suggesting the possibility of arm shipments from Tonkin
. In 1885, the French consul M. Hass moved to Mandalay
and negotiated the establishment of a French Bank in Burma, a concession for a railway from Mandalay to the northern border of British Burma and a French role in running monopolies controlled by the Burmese government. A secret treaty signed between Hass and king Thibaw was disclosed. The British reacted with diplomatic force. Charles Bernard
, the Chief Commissioner of Lower Burma
, warned that "if Ava refuses to stop the treaty, annexation will be inevitable".
The French government recalled Haas, who was removed allegedly "for reasons of health". While the French had backed down in Burma, the French actions as well as many other events nevertheless convinced the British to take action against Burma. Finally, the Third Anglo-Burmese War
(1885), staged while France was occupied with the Sino-French war
(1884–1885), resulted in the total annexation of Burma by Great Britain.
With the completion of British rule in Burma
, French contacts with Burma would become almost non-existent, while France would concentrate in the establishment of French Indochina
from the second half of the 19th century.
, ambassador-level diplomatic relationships between France and Burma were established in 1948, soon after the Burmese nation became an independent republic on 4 January 1948, as Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik
as its first President and U Nu
as its first Prime Minister.
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. Relations began in the early 18th century, as the French East India Company
French East India Company
The French East India Company was a commercial enterprise, founded in 1664 to compete with the British and Dutch East India companies in colonial India....
was attempting to extend its influence into Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
. France became involved upon the building of a shipyard in 1729 in the city of Syriam. The 1740 revolt of the Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
against Burmese
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
rule however forced the French to depart in 1742. They were able to return to Siam in 1751 when the Mon requested French assistance against the Burmese. A French envoy, Sieur de Bruno
Sieur de Bruno
Sieur de Bruno was a French adventurer and diplomat of the 18th century. He took an important role in developing French influence in Burma, and in leading French efforts at supporting the Mons during their conflicts against the Burmese....
was sent to evaluate the situation and help in the defense against the Burmese. French warships were sent to support the Mon rebellion, but in vain. In 1756, the Burmese under Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya was king of Burma from 1752 to 1760, and the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty. By his death in 1760, the former chief of a small village in Upper Burma had reunified all of Burma, subdued Manipur, recovered Lan Na, and driven out the French and the English who had given help to the...
vanquished the Mon. Many French were captured and incorporated into the Burmese Army as an elite gunner corps, under Chevalier Milard. In 1769, official contacts resume when a trade treaty was signed between king Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin was king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma from 1763 to 1776. The second son of the dynasty founder Alaungpaya is best known for his wars with China and Siam, and is considered the most militaristic king of the dynasty. His successful defense against four Chinese invasions preserved...
and the French East India Company.
Soon however, France became embroiled in the French revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
and Napoleonic wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
, giving way to overwhelming British influence in Burma. French contacts with Burma, effectively a British colony, would become almost non-existent, while from the second half of the 19th century France would concentrate in the establishment of French Indochina
French Indochina
French Indochina was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin , Annam , and Cochinchina , as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887....
and the conflicts with China leading to the Sino-French war
Sino-French War
The Sino–French War was a limited conflict fought between August 1884 and April 1885 to decide whether France should replace China in control of Tonkin . As the French achieved their war aims, they are usually considered to have won the war...
.
French shipyard in Syriam (1729–1742)
Governor-General
A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...
of French India
French India
French India is a general name for the former French possessions in India These included Pondichéry , Karikal and Yanaon on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast, and Chandannagar in Bengal...
Joseph François Dupleix
Joseph François Dupleix
Joseph-François, Marquis Dupleix was governor general of the French establishment in India, and the rival of Robert Clive.-Biography:Dupleix was born in Landrecies, France...
had started to show interest in Burma since 1727, on account of the country's abundance in teak
Teak
Teak is the common name for the tropical hardwood tree species Tectona grandis and its wood products. Tectona grandis is native to south and southeast Asia, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Burma, but is naturalized and cultivated in many countries, including those in Africa and the...
and crude oil. As a result, a French shipyard was established in the city of Syriam in 1729, building ships for Pondicherry. The shipyard was abandoned in 1742 due to the revolt of the Mon.
Intervention in Burma (1751)
A few years later, a Mon envoy visited Dupleix requesting French help in the fight against the Burmese. Dupleix promised men and munitions and dispatched Sieur de BrunoSieur de Bruno
Sieur de Bruno was a French adventurer and diplomat of the 18th century. He took an important role in developing French influence in Burma, and in leading French efforts at supporting the Mons during their conflicts against the Burmese....
with the objective of developing French influence in the country. He arrived at Pegu in July 1751. Sieur de Bruno reported back that a few hundred French troops would be able to take control of the Irrawaddy Delta
Irrawaddy Delta
The Irrawaddy Delta or Ayeyarwady Delta lies in the Ayeyarwady Region , the lowest expanse of land in Burma that fans out from the limit of tidal influence at Myan Aung to the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, 290 km to the south at the mouth of the Ayeyarwady River...
, triggering an official request by Dupleix to the French court to obtain the necessary military support. Sieur de Bruno obtained a treaty and formed an alliance between France and the Mons.
Governor Saunders
Saunders
Saunders is a surname of English and Scottish patronymic origin derived from Sander, a mediæval form of Alexander.People with the surname Saunders include:* Al Saunders, American football coach* Allen Saunders, American cartoonist...
of Madras attempted to counter the French moves in the region by sending a military force to survey the island of Negrais under Captain Thomas Taylor
Thomas Taylor
Thomas Taylor was an English translator and Neoplatonist, the first to translate into English the complete works of Aristotle and of Plato, as well as the Orphic fragments.-Biography:...
. He also tried to negotiate the cession of Syriam to the British. The Mons firmly opposed these attempts at British encroachment under the counsel of Sieur de Bruno, who had considerable influence at the Mon court and was especially on excellent terms with the Heir Apparent. Saunders finally decided to occupy Negrais forcibly, occupying the island on 26 April, 1753.
However, Dupleix's proposals to take control of the Irrawady delta were rejected by the French government, strongly limiting his capacity to intervene there.
Participation in the Burman-Mon conflict (1751–1756)
Following their 1740 revolt against Burmese rule, the MonMon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
sacked Ava
Ava
Innwa is a city in the Mandalay Division of Burma , situated just to the south of Amarapura on the Ayeyarwady River. Its formal title is Ratanapura , which means City of Gems in Pali. The name Innwa means mouth of the lake, which comes from in , meaning lake, and wa , which means mouth...
in 1752, and overran most of Burma, putting an end to the Toungoo dynasty
Toungoo Dynasty
The Toungoo Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Burma from the mid-16th century to 1752. Its early kings Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung succeeded in reunifying the Pagan Empire for the first time since 1287, and in incorporating the Shan States for the first time...
. Soon however, the Burmese were able to repeal the Mons under the leadership of Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya
Alaungpaya was king of Burma from 1752 to 1760, and the founder of the Konbaung Dynasty. By his death in 1760, the former chief of a small village in Upper Burma had reunified all of Burma, subdued Manipur, recovered Lan Na, and driven out the French and the English who had given help to the...
. The Mons had to retreat, as Alaunpaya first recovered northern Burma, capturing the city of Ava
Ava
Innwa is a city in the Mandalay Division of Burma , situated just to the south of Amarapura on the Ayeyarwady River. Its formal title is Ratanapura , which means City of Gems in Pali. The name Innwa means mouth of the lake, which comes from in , meaning lake, and wa , which means mouth...
on January 14, 1754. By February 1755, Central Burma was secured. The Burmese soon threatened the capital of Pegu, as well as the city of Syriam.
In Syriam, Sieur de Bruno was helping the Mons in organizing their defense. Sieur de Bruno was insistently requesting more help from Pondicherry. He acted as a military advisor to the Mons, and French warships participated in fighting against the Burmese in Syriam and Dagon (ancient Rangoon).
Alaungpaya on the other hand was asking the British for guns and ammunitions. Alaungpaya managed to capture Syriam in July 1756. Sieur de Bruno and the other French with him were captured and tortured. Two French ships arriving two days after the capture of Syriam, Fleury and Galathée, with reinforcements and supplies were also captured by Alaungpaya, when Alaungpaya forced Bruno to write a letter to trick them. The French captains were killed and the 200 sailors forced to join the Burmese army Sieur de Bruno was roasted to death. From the two ships, Alaugpaya managed to put his hands on 35 ships guns (24 pounders), five field guns, 1300 muskets, and a large quantity of ammunitions. France was precluded from further intervention in Burma, with the advent of the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
(1756–1763).
French elite corps
The French troops with their guns and muskets were incorporated in the Burmese army as gunners, and played a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They were treated well and received Burmese wives. They became an elite corps, which was to play an important role in the Burmese battles against the SiameseThai people
The Thai people, or Siamese, are the main ethnic group of Thailand and are part of the larger Tai ethnolinguistic peoples found in Thailand and adjacent countries in Southeast Asia as well as southern China. Their language is the Thai language, which is classified as part of the Kradai family of...
and the Manchus. One of them, the Chevalier Milard, was ultimately nominated Captain of the Guard and Master of the Ordnance for the Konbaung dynasty
Konbaung dynasty
The Konbaung Dynasty was the last dynasty that ruled Burma from 1752 to 1885. The dynasty created the second largest empire in Burmese history, and continued the administrative reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty, laying the foundations of modern state of Burma...
.
When they reached old age, the French soldiers were able to retire Shwebo villages, with the spiritual support of a priest. To this day, some Catholic villages are still extant in the area where an awareness of some European ancestry remains.
Resumption of official contacts (1769)
In 1769, a French embassy led by M. FeraudM. Feraud
M. Feraud was a French diplomat of the 18th century who went on a mission to resume official French East India Company contacts with Burma in 1769...
was sent to resume official French East India Company
French East India Company
The French East India Company was a commercial enterprise, founded in 1664 to compete with the British and Dutch East India companies in colonial India....
contacts with Burma. He obtained a trade treaty, and the establishment of a French factory in the city of Rangoon.
The arrival of the embassy was facilitated by Chevalier Milard. The king of Burma Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin
Hsinbyushin was king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma from 1763 to 1776. The second son of the dynasty founder Alaungpaya is best known for his wars with China and Siam, and is considered the most militaristic king of the dynasty. His successful defense against four Chinese invasions preserved...
welcomed Feraud's embassy, and accepted Ferraud's offer for trade, in exchange for the supply of guns and ammunitions. The king remitted a letter of agreement, which Feraud brought back to Pondicherry.
Given the previous involvement of the French with the dissident Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
under Sieur de Bruno
Sieur de Bruno
Sieur de Bruno was a French adventurer and diplomat of the 18th century. He took an important role in developing French influence in Burma, and in leading French efforts at supporting the Mons during their conflicts against the Burmese....
, the king of Burma clearly specified that French arm trade should involved him only.
As a result of the embassy, the French obtained a large ground in Rangoon where they were able to establish warehouses.
Franco-British rivalry (19th century)
With the advent of the French revolutionFrench Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
in 1789 and the rise of Napoleon, France became less capable of involvement in faraway theaters such as Burma. Great Britain on the contrary was able to increase its influence, leading to the First Anglo–Burmese War (1823–1826) and the gradual extinction of Burmese sovereignty and independence. After the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852), the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
annexed Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
.
Mindon Min
Mindon Min was the penultimate king of Burma from 1853 to 1878. He was one of the most popular and revered kings of Burma. Under his half brother King Pagan, the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852 ended with the annexation of Lower Burma by the British Empire. Mindon and his younger brother Kanaung...
sent an embassy to Europe, led by his confidant, the Kinwun Mingyi, leading to the signature of a commercial treaty with France on January 24, 1873. Further, in 1883, king Thibaw Min
Thibaw Min
Thibaw Min was the last king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma . His reign ended when Burma was defeated by the forces of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, on 29 November 1885, prior to its official annexation on 1 January 1886....
attempted to break the stalemate with Great Britain by trying to establish an alliance with France to obtain recognition and aid. This led to strong tensions between France and Great Britain. In the end, in spite of the dispatch of a Burmese mission to Paris, France refused in 1884 to sign a treaty promising that France would come to the support of Burma in case a third power would attack it, only suggesting the possibility of arm shipments from Tonkin
Tonkin
Tonkin , also spelled Tongkin, Tonquin or Tongking, is the northernmost part of Vietnam, south of China's Yunnan and Guangxi Provinces, east of northern Laos, and west of the Gulf of Tonkin. Locally, it is known as Bắc Kỳ, meaning "Northern Region"...
. In 1885, the French consul M. Hass moved to Mandalay
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city and the last royal capital of Burma. Located north of Yangon on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, the city has a population of one million, and is the capital of Mandalay Region ....
and negotiated the establishment of a French Bank in Burma, a concession for a railway from Mandalay to the northern border of British Burma and a French role in running monopolies controlled by the Burmese government. A secret treaty signed between Hass and king Thibaw was disclosed. The British reacted with diplomatic force. Charles Bernard
Charles Edward Bernard
Sir Charles Edward Bernard KCSI was Chief Commissioner of Lower Burma from 2 July 1880 to 2 March 1883 and Chief Commissioner of Burma from 25 September 1886 to 12 March 1887....
, the Chief Commissioner of Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
, warned that "if Ava refuses to stop the treaty, annexation will be inevitable".
The French government recalled Haas, who was removed allegedly "for reasons of health". While the French had backed down in Burma, the French actions as well as many other events nevertheless convinced the British to take action against Burma. Finally, the Third Anglo-Burmese War
Third Anglo-Burmese War
The Third Anglo-Burmese War was a conflict that took place during 7–29 November 1885, with sporadic resistance and insurgency continuing into 1887. It was the final of three wars fought in the 19th century between the Burmese and the British...
(1885), staged while France was occupied with the Sino-French war
Sino-French War
The Sino–French War was a limited conflict fought between August 1884 and April 1885 to decide whether France should replace China in control of Tonkin . As the French achieved their war aims, they are usually considered to have won the war...
(1884–1885), resulted in the total annexation of Burma by Great Britain.
With the completion of British rule in Burma
British rule in Burma
British rule in Burma lasted from 1824 to 1948, from the Anglo-Burmese Wars through the creation of Burma as a province of British India to the establishment of an independently administered colony, and finally independence...
, French contacts with Burma would become almost non-existent, while France would concentrate in the establishment of French Indochina
French Indochina
French Indochina was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin , Annam , and Cochinchina , as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887....
from the second half of the 19th century.
20th century
Following the end of World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, ambassador-level diplomatic relationships between France and Burma were established in 1948, soon after the Burmese nation became an independent republic on 4 January 1948, as Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik
Sao Shwe Thaik
Sao Shwe Thaik was the first president of the Union of Burma and the last Saopha of Yawnghwe. His full royal style was Kambawsarahta Thiri Pawaramahawuntha Thudamaraza. He was a well-respected Shan political figure in Burma...
as its first President and U Nu
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
as its first Prime Minister.
External links
- Miscellaneous Letters on Burma, 1755–1760, I http://web.soas.ac.uk/burma/pdf/Miscletters1.pdf