Campaigns of World War II
Encyclopedia
The campaigns of World War II were the military operations that were employed during World War II
. Campaign
s generally refer to broader strategic operations conducted over a large bit of territory and over a long period of time. Battle
s generally refer to short periods of intense combat localized to a specific area and over a specific period of time. However, use of the terms in naming such events is not consistent. For example, the Battle of the Atlantic was more or less an entire theater of war, and the so-called battle lasted for the duration of the entire war. Another misnomer is the Battle of Britain
, which by all rights should be considered a campaign, not a mere battle.
encompassed a large number of campaigns and many of the war's largest battles. In particular, the Eastern Front was the site of almost constant campaigning and regular battles.
was fought in Poland
between invading German
and Soviet forces and defending Polish
forces, beginning with the invasion of Poland by Germany under operational plan Fall Weiss
on September 1, 1939, and concluding with the surrender of the last Polish military forces on October 6, 1939. Many Polish personnel and forces escaped capture, but the entirety of Poland was captured and the campaign was a success for the invading forces. While France
and the United Kingdom
declared war on Germany over the invasion, they were unable to render significant aid to Poland during the campaign.
on April 9, 1940, ahead of the less well organized Allied campaign in Norway. Part of the campaign was the capture of Denmark by German forces, with Copenhagen
falling to Germany within hours. The Norwegian portion of the campaign lasted until June 10, 1940, when the Allied forces completed their withdrawal, allowing Axis occupation of Norway which would last for the remainder of the war.
, assisted the French and Belgian forces. The Germans were successful in cutting off large portions of the Allied forces in the Low Countries, forcing evacuation by sea, and in driving rapidly through northern France, precipitating the collapse of the French government. On June 22, the French government signs the armistice with Germany to bring an end to the campaign, leaving north and west France, as well as the Low Countries under Axis occupation. Territory is also ceded to Italy in the south. The resulting Vichy France consists of south central France and most of the French colonies.
. The primary German weapon was the U-Boat
), although surface raiders, mine-laying craft, and aircraft also were used to attack Allied shipping and escorts in the Atlantic Ocean. The campaign extended into neighboring seas, such as the Caribbean Sea
and North Sea
, and even involved the Arctic Ocean
and Indian Ocean
, although the vast majority of engagements happened within the North Atlantic Ocean. The campaign lasted for the duration of the war, and while Germany never succeeded in fully cutting off enough shipments to bring the United Kingdom
into a negotiated settlement, the materiel cost to the Allies
of lost shipments and effort exerted in defense of the convoys was significant, and therefore neither side clearly prevailed.
, RAF Bomber Command
air raid
s against German military targets evolved to adopt nighttime attacks as their primary tactic in conjunction with a strategy of area bombardment
against Nazi Germany
morale. After the arrival of heavy bomber
s and the U.S. entry into the war, the Combined Bomber Offensive
included daylight raids and attacks with formations of over 1000 bombers on German aircraft industry and vengeance weapon sites
. The use of long range escort fighters using pressurized drop tanks (P-47s, July 1943) and navigation advances
allowed increased bombing accuracy despite German radar-equipped night fighters and rocket interceptors. Significant Nazi Germany
attempts to re-allocate fighters and flak guns
to protect synthetic oil production during 1944
failed to stop the reduction in petrol supplies to German ground troops and aviation fuel to the Luftwaffe, nor the significant attrition of their experienced pilots. As a result, the Allies
gained air superiority in late 1944 and air supremacy after the Luftwaffe was defeated in their Operation Bodenplatte counterair attack of January 1945.
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Campaign
Military campaign
In the military sciences, the term military campaign applies to large scale, long duration, significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of inter-related military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war...
s generally refer to broader strategic operations conducted over a large bit of territory and over a long period of time. Battle
Battle
Generally, a battle is a conceptual component in the hierarchy of combat in warfare between two or more armed forces, or combatants. In a battle, each combatant will seek to defeat the others, with defeat determined by the conditions of a military campaign...
s generally refer to short periods of intense combat localized to a specific area and over a specific period of time. However, use of the terms in naming such events is not consistent. For example, the Battle of the Atlantic was more or less an entire theater of war, and the so-called battle lasted for the duration of the entire war. Another misnomer is the Battle of Britain
Battle of Britain
The Battle of Britain is the name given to the World War II air campaign waged by the German Air Force against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940...
, which by all rights should be considered a campaign, not a mere battle.
European Theatre
The European Theatre of World War IIEuropean Theatre of World War II
The European Theatre of World War II was a huge area of heavy fighting across Europe from Germany's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939 until the end of the war with the German unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945...
encompassed a large number of campaigns and many of the war's largest battles. In particular, the Eastern Front was the site of almost constant campaigning and regular battles.
Polish September Campaign
The Invasion of PolandInvasion of Poland (1939)
The Invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign or 1939 Defensive War in Poland and the Poland Campaign in Germany, was an invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the start of World War II in Europe...
was fought in Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
between invading German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and Soviet forces and defending Polish
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
forces, beginning with the invasion of Poland by Germany under operational plan Fall Weiss
Fall Weiss
Fall Weiss translates as Case White following the German military's naming convention.Fall Weiss may refer to two military operations:* Fall Weiss , the German strategic plan for a war with Poland...
on September 1, 1939, and concluding with the surrender of the last Polish military forces on October 6, 1939. Many Polish personnel and forces escaped capture, but the entirety of Poland was captured and the campaign was a success for the invading forces. While France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
declared war on Germany over the invasion, they were unable to render significant aid to Poland during the campaign.
The Phoney War
The Phoney War refers to the conduct of the war in Western Europe, primarily along the Franco-German border, between the declaration of war on September 3, 1939, to the invasion of France and the Low Countries by Germany on May 10, 1940. This period is marked by a distinct lack of active combat operations despite the war status. German forces were fighting in Poland and lacked sufficient strength to mount an offensive, while for a number of reasons, the Allies did not exploit this weakness to go on the offensive themselves on this front.Winter War
The Winter War fought between Finland and the Soviet Union, was a concurrent war to World War II, and thus is covered in its own main article.Norwegian campaign
The Norwegian campaign was the battle for control of Norway and its strategic position and influence in regard to mineral resources and access to the Baltic Sea. Both Germany and the Allies planned actions of military intervention, but Germany was first to act, launching their Operation WeserübungOperation Weserübung
Operation Weserübung was the code name for Germany's assault on Denmark and Norway during the Second World War and the opening operation of the Norwegian Campaign...
on April 9, 1940, ahead of the less well organized Allied campaign in Norway. Part of the campaign was the capture of Denmark by German forces, with Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
falling to Germany within hours. The Norwegian portion of the campaign lasted until June 10, 1940, when the Allied forces completed their withdrawal, allowing Axis occupation of Norway which would last for the remainder of the war.
France and the Low Countries
The Battle of France was launched by Germany with the Fall Gelb operation, when German forces invaded France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands on May 10, 1940. A strong British contingent, the British Expeditionary ForceBritish Expeditionary Force (World War II)
The British Expeditionary Force was the British force in Europe from 1939–1940 during the Second World War. Commanded by General Lord Gort, the BEF constituted one-tenth of the defending Allied force....
, assisted the French and Belgian forces. The Germans were successful in cutting off large portions of the Allied forces in the Low Countries, forcing evacuation by sea, and in driving rapidly through northern France, precipitating the collapse of the French government. On June 22, the French government signs the armistice with Germany to bring an end to the campaign, leaving north and west France, as well as the Low Countries under Axis occupation. Territory is also ceded to Italy in the south. The resulting Vichy France consists of south central France and most of the French colonies.
Battle of the Atlantic
The Battle of the Atlantic was a strategic campaign by Germany to enforce a naval siege of the United KingdomUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. The primary German weapon was the U-Boat
U-boat
U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word U-Boot , itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot , and refers to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in World War I and World War II...
), although surface raiders, mine-laying craft, and aircraft also were used to attack Allied shipping and escorts in the Atlantic Ocean. The campaign extended into neighboring seas, such as the Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea
The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean located in the tropics of the Western hemisphere. It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and southwest, to the north by the Greater Antilles, and to the east by the Lesser Antilles....
and North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
, and even involved the Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions...
and Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
, although the vast majority of engagements happened within the North Atlantic Ocean. The campaign lasted for the duration of the war, and while Germany never succeeded in fully cutting off enough shipments to bring the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
into a negotiated settlement, the materiel cost to the Allies
Allies
In everyday English usage, allies are people, groups, or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out between them...
of lost shipments and effort exerted in defense of the convoys was significant, and therefore neither side clearly prevailed.
Strategic bombing campaign in Europe
After initial heavy losses and inaccurate bombingsButt Report
The Butt Report was a report prepared during World War II which revealed the widespread failure of bombers to deliver their payloads to the correct target....
, RAF Bomber Command
RAF Bomber Command
RAF Bomber Command controlled the RAF's bomber forces from 1936 to 1968. During World War II the command destroyed a significant proportion of Nazi Germany's industries and many German cities, and in the 1960s stood at the peak of its postwar military power with the V bombers and a supplemental...
air raid
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
s against German military targets evolved to adopt nighttime attacks as their primary tactic in conjunction with a strategy of area bombardment
Area bombing directive
The Area Bombing Directive was a directive from the wartime British Government's Air Ministry to the Royal Air Force which ordered RAF bombers to attack the German industrial workforce and the morale of the German populace through bombing German cities and their civilian inhabitants.- Background...
against Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
morale. After the arrival of heavy bomber
Heavy bomber
A heavy bomber is a bomber aircraft of the largest size and load carrying capacity, and usually the longest range.In New START, the term "heavy bomber" is used for two types of bombers:*one with a range greater than 8,000 kilometers...
s and the U.S. entry into the war, the Combined Bomber Offensive
Combined Bomber Offensive
The Combined Bomber Offensive was an Anglo-American offensive of strategic bombing during World War II in Europe. The primary portion of the CBO was against German Air Force targets which was the highest priority from June 1943 to 1944...
included daylight raids and attacks with formations of over 1000 bombers on German aircraft industry and vengeance weapon sites
Operation Crossbow
Crossbow was the code name of the World War II campaign of Anglo-American "operations against all phases of the German long-range weapons programme—operations against research and development of the weapons, their manufacture, transportation and their launching sites, and against missiles in flight"...
. The use of long range escort fighters using pressurized drop tanks (P-47s, July 1943) and navigation advances
Battle of the beams
The Battle of the Beams was a period early in the Second World War when bombers of the German Air Force used a number of increasingly accurate systems of radio navigation for night bombing. British "scientific intelligence" at the Air Ministry fought back with a variety of increasingly effective...
allowed increased bombing accuracy despite German radar-equipped night fighters and rocket interceptors. Significant Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
attempts to re-allocate fighters and flak guns
88 mm gun
The 88 mm gun was a German anti-aircraft and anti-tank artillery gun from World War II. It was widely used by Germany throughout the war, and was one of the most recognizable German weapons of the war...
to protect synthetic oil production during 1944
Oil Campaign of World War II
The Allied Oil Campaign of World War II was directed at facilities supplying Nazi Germany with petroleum, oil, and lubrication products...
failed to stop the reduction in petrol supplies to German ground troops and aviation fuel to the Luftwaffe, nor the significant attrition of their experienced pilots. As a result, the Allies
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
gained air superiority in late 1944 and air supremacy after the Luftwaffe was defeated in their Operation Bodenplatte counterair attack of January 1945.